PLANT 
PROPAGATION 

GREENHOUSE  AND 
NURSERYPRACTICE 


M.G.KAINS 


PLANT 
PROPAGATION 

Greenhouse  and 
Nursery  Practice 


By 
M.  G.  K  AINS 

Professor  of  Horticulture,  Pennsylvania  State  College 


NEW  YORK 
ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

1918 


Copyright,  1916,  by 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

All  Rights  Reserved 


PRINTED  IN  U.  S.  A. 


Ill 

PREFACE 


"\V7ITHIN  the  last  few  years  so  many  discoveries 
^^/  of  new  facts  have  been  made  by  plant  investi- 
gators, so  many  short-cuts  and  "wrinkles"  worked 
out  by  plant  propagators,  and  so  many  nursery,  green- 
house and  garden  methods  simplified  or  made  more  effec- 
tive, that  books  hitherto  available  on  plant  propagation 
are  now  out  of  date.  Nurserymen  and  other  propagators 
who  have  not  been  able  to  keep  their  eyes  upon  the 
whole  field  have  been  calling  for  a  book  which  will  give 
them  the  best  of  these  methods  and  "wrinkles"  in  the 
comparatively  small  compass  of  a  single  volume. 

At  the  same  time  there  has  been  a  more  and  more 
insistent  call  for  a  volume  that  will  not  only  include  the 
character  of  information  called  for  by  nurserymen  and 
other  plant  propagators,  but  also  discuss  the  subject  of 
plant  propagation  from  the  standpoint  of  fundamental 
principles  and  include  the  latest  conclusions  advanced  by 
investigators  throughout  the  world. 

With  these  two  main  objects  in  view  the  author  has 
brought  together  the  latest  information  on  all  branches  of 
practical  and  theoretical  plant  propagation  so  as  to  make 
a  volume  that  will  appeal  with  equal  force  to  the  pro- 
fessional propagator  and  to  the  teacher  of  plant  propaga- 
tion in  agricultural  colleges  and  schools  at  home  and 
abroad.  The  former  will  be  most  attracted  by  the  new 
methods  and  short  cuts  which  will  make  for  efficiency ; 
the  latter  will  appreciate  the  convenience  of  arrangement, 
the  numerous  illustrations  and  the  large  list  of  suggested 
practicums  (page  292).  To  professional  propagator, 
teacher  and  amateur  the  plant  lists  and  condensed  rules 
for  propagation  will  also  be  specially  interesting. 

Literature  of  propagation  is  abundant,  though  much 


PREFACE 


is  necessarily  repetitive.  The  best  way  to  get  in  touch 
with  the  work  done  since  1888  is  by  means  of  the  Experi- 
ment Station  Record  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  at  Washington.  This  is  a  technical  review 
of  the  world's  scientific  literature  pertaining  to  agricul- 
ture. Two  volumes,  of  six  monthly  numbers  each,  are  is- 
sued annually  at  a  subscription  price  of  $1.00  a  volume, 
with  a  restricted  free  distribution  to  libraries,  government 
and  state  agricultural  investigators,  etc.  It  abstracts  and 
indexes  the  current  agricultural  literature,  not  only  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  of  the  ex- 
periment stations,  but  the  more  important  periodical  and 
book  publications  of  the  world.  Extensive  and  minutely 
detailed  indexes  are  published  semi-annually  and  assem- 
bled into  combined  indexes  from  time  to  time.  By  means  of 

NURSERY  AND  FLORIST  INDUSTRIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 
(Figures  from  Census  of  1910.) 


Year 

Fls.  &  Pits. 

Nursery 
Prods. 

Acreage 

1909 

18,248 

80,618 

1899 

9,307 

59,492 

Increase  %  

96.1 

35.5 

Value..     __     _ 

1909 

$34,872,329 

$21,050,822 

1899 

18,758,864 

10,123,873 

Increase  %._  _     

85.9 

107.9 

Acreage  per  establishment  

1909 
1899 

$3,286 
3,771 

$2,132 
2,028 

Acre  value 

1909 

$1,911 

$261 

1899 

2,015 

170 

these  indexes  the  searcher  may  easily  post  himself  as 
to  the  scientific  work  reported  on  any  agricultural  subject 
in  the  least  possible  time.  In  the  preparation  of  this 


PREFACE  Vll 

volume  free  use  has  been  made  of  the  Experiment  Station 
Record,  from  which  many  passages  have  been  copied, 
more  or  less  condensed.  Most  of  those  relating  to  foreign 
and  some  concerning  American  work  have  been  thus 
secured.  The  majority  of  these  have  been  set  in  small 
type  to  avoid  too  frequent  references  in  the  text  to  the 
source  of  information.  Where  possible  the  original 
sources  were  sought  and  quotations  or  synopses  made 
first  hand. 

The  work  of  Lucien  Daniel,  so  frequently  presented 
in  this  volume,  is  likely  to  effect  a  revolution  among  tra- 
ditional grafting  doctrines,  but  this  revolution  will  prob- 
ably be  slow  in  its  movement  because  it  must  not  be  ac- 
cepted without  repeated  investigation.  Daniel's  theories, 
though  based  upon  facts,  are  naturally  doubted  by  many 
plant  propagators  or  are  only  partly  credited.  Yet  in 
practice  many  of  them  have  already  been  justified.  Herr 
Lindemuth  of  the  Royal  University  Garden  at  Berlin  has 
supported  some  of  them  by  his  investigations  and  other 
investigators  in  Europe,  Australia  and  America  have 
thrown  additional  light  upon  the  general  subject  of  plant 
propagation.  Considering  the  importance  and  the  extent 
of  the  nursery  and  florist  business,  as  shown  by  the  last 
census  of  the  United  States,  it  is  evident  that  competition 
between  establishments  will  keep  plant  propagators  on 
the  qui  vive  to  test  new  theories  and  practices  and  to 
adopt  all  those  that  will  tend  toward  higher  efficiency  and 
economy  of  production.  This  fact  is  attested  by  the  very 
generous  response  to  requests  for  aid  and  suggestion 
made  by  nurserymen  in  many  states.  This  aid  the  author 
gratefully  acknowledges. 

Special  thanks  are  due  Mr.  B.  F.  Williamson  of 
New  York  who  drew  almost  all  of  the  pen  and  ink 
sketches;  to  Mr.  E.  T.  Kirk,  photographer  at  the  Penn- 
sylvania State  College  for  many  of  the  photos  not  special- 
ly referred  to  below;  to  Mr.  J.  R.  Bechtel  of  the  horticul- 
tural department  staff  at  the  college  for  pictures  taken  in 


Vlll  PREFACE 

the  Henry  A.  Dreer  greenhouses  at  Riverton,  N.  J. ;  to 
Mr.  L.  F.  Reese  and  Mr.  H.  M.  Hills,  also  members  of 
the  staff,  for  many  helpful  suggestions  as  to  outdoor  and 
indoor  propagation  respectively ;  to  the  A.  T.  de  la  Mare 
Company  of  New  York  for  the  set  of  pictures  detailing 
hyacinth  propagation ;  and  to  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  and  to  experiment  stations  and 
propagating  establishments  which  supplied  the  illustra- 
tions noted  in  the  list  of  acknowledgments  printed  else- 
where. 

The  author  has  had  too  long  an  experience  in  writing 
and  editing  books  and  articles  to  suppose  that  this  volume 
is  perfect.  He  therefore  earnestly  requests  that  readers 
who  note  any  least  error  of  statement  or  typography  will 
kindly  notify  him  or  the  publishers  so  corrections  may 
be  made  in  subsequent  editions.  In  the  hope,  however, 
that  such  erfors  are  few  and  that  the  volume  will  meet 
a  long-felt  need  the  author  confidently  commends  it  to 
plant  propagators  and  students  of  plant  propagation. 

M.  G.  KAINS. 
State  College,  Pa.,  March  1, 1916. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT 


The  following-  individuals,  institutions  and  business 
houses  have  supplied  the  illustrations  referred  to  by 
figures  opposite  their  names. 

J.  R.  Bechtel,  State  College,  Pa.,  photos  taken  in  greenhouses  of 
Henry  A.  Dreer  at  Riverton,  N.  J. 

1,  3,  10,  15,  18,  27,  44,  76,  88,  89,  126,  199. 
Minnesota  Experiment  Station,  St.  Anthony  Park,  Minn. 

8,  41,  84,  93,  198 

The  Ball  Manufacturing  Co.,  Glenside,   Pa.  12,  30,  86 

The   Cloche   Company,    New   York   17 

Royal  Palm  Nurseries,  Oneco,  Fla Frontispiece,  25,  85 

Michigan  Agricultural   College,   East  Lansing,   Mich. 

28,  141  (center  picture) 

W.  N.  Scarff,  New  Carlisle,  O. 29,  100 

H.  F.  Michell,  Philadelphia,  Pa 51,  94 

U.  S.  Department  of    Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.  62,  64,  65,  70 

A.  T.  de  la  Mare  Co.,  New  York 66,  67,  68,  69 

Lord  and  Burnham  Co.,  New  York 78,  79,  80 

Storrs   and    Harrison    Co.,    Painesville   O.    83,   110,    120 

California  Experiment  Station,  Berkeley,  Cal. 

91,  105,  106,  107,  151,  155,  178,  181,  189,  191,  201 
Ohio  State  University  Extension  Dept.,  Columbus,  O. 

103,  117,  170 

Harrison's   Nurseries,  Berlin,  Md.  112,   145,  203,  206,  213 

Massachusetts   Agricultural   College,   Horticultural   Dept.,   Am- 

herst,  Mass. 116,  121,  122,  123,  124,  125,  132 

Kelly  Brothers,  Dansville,  N.  Y. 128,  211,  212 

New  York  State  Experiment  Station,  Geneva,  N.  Y. 

129,  157,   176,   187,   194 
Isaac  Hicks  and  Son,  Westbury,  N.  Y. 

131,   139,    144,   148,   154,   160,    164,    183 

Maloney  Brothers  and  Wells  Company,  Dansville,  N.  Y.  133,  173,  208 
ix 


X  ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

Samuel  Eraser,  Geneseo,  N.  Y. 134,  156,  161,  180,  193 

Stark  Brothers'  Nursery,  Louisiana,  Mo 137,  152,  159,  165,  169 

Greening  Brothers'  Nursery,  Monroe,  Mich., 

150,   167,   171,   174,  207,  209,  210 

Meehan's  Nurseries,  Dreshef,  Pa.  185,  197 

Chase  Nursery  Co.,  Huntsville,  Ala. 158 

Horticultural  Department,  Pennsylvania  State  College, 

State  College,  Pa.  2,  5,  6,  21,  22,  31,  32,  33,  34,  39,  40,  43,  45, 
46,  47,  52,  56,  57,  58,  60,  63,  73,  89,  90,  92,  95,  101,  102,  104,  109, 
114,  115,  135,  136,  146,  190,  196,  202. 

Department  of   Experimental  Pomology,   Pennsylvania  State 

College,   State   College,    Pa.   182 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I 
Introduction    .          .          .          ...         ..       1 

CHAPTER  II 
Germination  .          .          .          .         .  .         .20 

CHAPTER  III 
Germination  and  Longevity  of  Seeds       .          .         .     36 

CHAPTER  IV 
Seed  Testing  .          .          .         :          .          .         .         .     40 

CHAPTER  V 

Potting  .          .          .          .         .         .          .          .54 

CHAPTER  VI 
Propagation  by  Buds — Layerage     .          .          .          .64 

CHAPTER  VII 
Bottom  Heat  .         .         .         .         .         .         .86 

CHAPTER  VIII 
Cuttage  .         .         .         .      :  .         .         .         .95 

CHAPTER  IX 
Classes  of  Cuttings  .          .         .         .          .          .  Ill 

CHAPTER  X 
Graftage — General  Considerations  .          .         .         .  131 

CHAPTER  XI 
Is  Graftage  Devitalizing?         .          ...      *         .   153 

CHAPTER  XII 

Daniel's  Experiments  and  Conclusions   .          .          .   159 
xi 


Xii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XIII 
General  Points  Concerning  Fruit  Tree  Stocks  .          .   176 

CHAPTER  XIV 
Stock  and  Cion  Handling       .....  191 

CHAPTER  XV 
Grafting  Waxes,  Wound  Dressings,  etc.  .          .          .  221 

CHAPTER  XVI 
Methods  of  Grafting 227 

CHAPTER  XVII 
Methods  of  Budding 255 

CHAPTER  XVIII 
Nursery  Management 269 

CHAPTER  XIX 
Laws  Affecting  Nursery  Stock          ....  287 

Suggested  Practicums 292 

Index  to  Plant  List 309 

General  Index  .   319 


Condensed  Cultural  Instructions 

Tables  Page 

1  Annuals  and  Perennials  Grown  From  Seed          .   300 

2  Woody  Plants       '    ,          .     '    .         .         .         .302 

3  Evergreens 303 

4  Vines       .         .         .         .         ....         .303 

5  Hardy  Perennials     .          ....         .          .304 

6  Bulbs,  Corms  and  Tubers         .         .  .  304 

7  Greenhouse  and  House  Plants  .          .          .   305 

8  Ferns       .         ,         .         .        -»         .         .         .305 

9  Palms       .          .          .         .         .         ,         .    -     .   306 

10  Water  Plants  ...          .          .         .          .306 

11  Orchids    .          . 307 

12  Cacti  .                             ...   308 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Fig.  Page 
Frontispiece,  Slat  Shed  in  Florida  Nursery 

1  Making  Cuttings  in  Big  Commercial  Greenhouse     2 

2  Tiger  Lily  and  Bulblets 3 

3  Pricking  Out  Plants  in  Shaded  Cold  Frames         5 

4  Cracked  Soil 6 

5  Weeding  Potted  Plants  in  Cold  Frame  .         .       7 

6  Spotting  Board       .          .          .  *  .         .8 

7  Lath  House  for  Summer  Propagation    .          .     10 

8  Germination  in  Cloth       .          .          .          .          .11 

9  Brush  Screen  to  Shade  Plants  Out  of  Doors       12 

10  Pricking  Out  Seedlings  in  Flat       .          .          .13 

11  Pot  Plunging 14 

12  Two  Styles  of  Plant  Protectors  or  "  Forcers"       15 

13  Characteristic  Forms  of  Seedlings  .          .          .16 

14  Seed  and  Bulb  Drying  Shed  .          .          .          .18 

15  Shades  for  Outdoor  Propagating  Beds  .          .     21 

16  Cutting  Frame 22 

17  Glass  Protectors  for  Outdoor  Planting  .          .     23 

18  Propagating  Bench  Shaded  with  Newspapers      24 

19  Deep  Planting  Effects 26 

20  Row  Makers  and  Firming  Board  .          .          .26 

21  Kentucky  Coffee  Tree  Seedling       .          .          .27 

22  Students  at  Pennsylvania  State  College  .          .     28 

23  Dibbles,  Their  Use  and  Abuse       .         .         .29 

24  Paper  Plant  Protector 30 

25  View  in   Florida  Nursery       .          .          .          .31 

26  Seed  Study  Cards 32 

27  Nelumbium  (Lotus)   Propagation  .          .          .34 

28  Vegetable  Plant  Beds    .         .  .         .37 

29  California  Privet  in  Ohio  Nursery  .          .          .38 

30  Wrinkles  in  Growing  Plants  in  Flats       .          .     39 

31  Two  Styles  of  Trowels 40 

32  Effective  Means  of  Hastening  Germination    .     41 

xlii 


XIV  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig.  Page 

33  Rhizomes        .          .          .-  .         .          .42 

34  Potting  Rooted  Geranium       ....     43 

35  Small  Scale  Seed  Testing  .  ...     44 

36  Elaborate  Propagating  Oven  ....     44 

37  Simple  Propagating  Oven       .          .          .          .44 

38  Sand  Box  Seed  Germinator   .          .          .          .45 

39  Labels  and  Methods  of  Marking      .          .          .46 

40  Box  Method  of  Steam  Sterilizing  Greenhouse 

Soil .48 

41  Sterilized  vs  Unsterilized  Soil         .          .          .50 

42  Frames  for  Straw  Mat  Making       .          .          .51 

43  Work  in  the  Cutting  Bench   .          .          .          .52 

44  Potting  Soil  Mixed  and  Under  Cover   .          .     54 

45  Sifting  Soil  for  Potting 55 

46  Greenhouse  Soil  Sieves  .          .          .          .          .56 

47  Tomato  Plants  in  Paper  and  Earthenware  Pots    57 

48  Wrong  and  Right  Ways  to  Fill  Pots    .         .     58 

49  Shutters  for  Covering  Hotbeds  and  Cold  Frames  59 

50  Removing  Plant   From   Pot    .          .      '    .          .60 

51  Pot   Storage  Out- of  Doors    .          .          .          .61 

52  Flat  Full  of  Plants  Ready  for  Transplanting  .     62 

53  Common  Layerage  .          .          .          .          .63 

54  Tricks  in  Transplanting  .          '.         .          .          .64 

55  Layering  of  Various  Kinds    .          .          .          .65 

56  Black  Raspberry  Rooted  Tip  .          .          .          .66 

57  Homemade    Layering  Pot       .          .         .          .67 

58  Chinese  Layers       ...         .         .         .          .67 

59  Styles  of  Layering  Pots 68 

60  Strawberry   Plants   Ready  for  Setting   .          .     69 

61  Trimming  Strawberry  Roots  .          .          .          .70 

62  Tulip    Planting   in   Washington    State    .          .     70 

63  Classes  of  Bulbs 71 

64  Hyacinths   Propagated  Naturally    .          .          .72 

65  Knife  Used  to  "Scoop"  Hyacinth  Bulbs  .          .     73 

66  Hyacinth  Propagation     .          .          .          .          .74 

67  Hyacinth   Propagation    .          .          .          .          .76 

68  Hyacinth   Propagation    .          .         .         .         .78 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  XV 

Fig.  Page 

69  Scooped  Hyacinth  Bulbs          .          .         .          .79 

70  Bulb  "Scooping"  Machine       .          .         .         .80 

71  Sweet  Potato  Propagation      .          .          .          .81 

72  Fire-Heated  Hotbed  for'  Sweet  Potato  Plant 

Starting      ".       .  ..;  •''  • 82 

73  Irish  Potatoes  Sprouting         .          .          .          .83 

74  Straw  Mat  for  Covering  Hotbeds  and  Cold 

Frames        .        ••.   •      .         ...         .         .86 

75  Making  a  Concrete  Hotbed   .          .         »         .87 

76  "Sweat  Box"  for  Propagating  .      •    .         .         .88 

77  Pipe  Warmed  Hotbed    .          .      '  ,         .         .89 

78  Single   Light   Melon   Frame    .          .         .          .89 

79  One  Light  Forcing  Frame       .          .          .          .90 

80  Hotbed  "Knocked  Down"  to  Show  Construction  90 

81  Glass-Covered  Cutting  Frame  .          .         .91 

82  Sweet  Potatoes  and  Vine          .         ...     91 

83  Two  Styles  of  Cold  Frames   .          .         .         .92 

84  Shifting  Plants       .          .          .          ...         .93 

85  Propagating  Sheds  in  Florida  Nursery  .          .     94 

86  Garden  Flat  and  Plants  Grown  in  It       .          .     96 

87  Stock  Plants  of  Croton  .          .          .          ...     97 

88  Propagation  by  Means  of  Cuttings  .         .          .98 

89  Red  Raspberry  Sucker  Plants         ...     99 

90  Method  of  Potting          .         .       .'.         .         .   100 

91  Formation  of  Roots         .          .          .          .          .102 

92  Odd  Ways  of  Starting  Cuttings   .         .         .103 

93  Packing  for  Shipment 104 

94  Tile-Bottomed  Greenhouse  Bench  .          .         .  105 

95  Double  Pot  of  Cuttings  .         .         .         ...  107 

96  Ventilated  Cutting  Pot  .       ...         .         .  108 

97  Nursery  Beds  K                      110 

98  Blackberry  Plants  .          .         .         .'        -.         .  Ill 

99  Cutting  Ready  for  Burying   ....  112 

100  Transplanting  Machine  in  Operation       .          .   113 

101  Carnation  Cuttings 114 

102  Odd  Ways  of  Starting  Plants  from  Cuttings     115 

103  Gooseberry  Cuttings       .....   116 


XVi  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig.  Page 

104  Students  in  the  Pennsylvania  State  College 

Greenhouse  ......   117 

105  Callusing  Bed  for  Cuttings  and  Root  Grafts     118 

106  Plan  of  Callusing  Bed 119 

107  Stand  for  Making  Graft  and  Cutting  Bundles  .   120 

108  Root  and  Bulb  Storage  Cellar  on  a  Hill  Side  .     121 

109  Potting 122 

110  Field  Planting  of  Potted  Dahlias  .          .          .123 

111  Green  Wood  for  Cuttings       .         .         .         .124 

112  Budding  Nursery  Stock 126 

113  Various  Styles  of  Watering  Pots  .          .          .127 

114  Bryophyllum  Leaf  .          .         .          .          .          .128 

115  Rooted   Gloxinia   Leaf 129 

116  Sections  of  Grafts 131 

117  Side  Graft 132 

118  Winter  Course  Students  Making  Root  Grafts    134 

119  Precocious  Cleft  Grafts  .          .          .'  .135 

120  Tree  Peddlers'  Sheds  at  Nursery  .          .          .136 

121  Diagrams  of  Graft  and  Bud  Cross  Sections       .   137 

122  Section  of  Apple  Grafts  .          .          .      .    .          .138 

123  Plum  Grafts  Showing  Continuous  Layers 

of  New  Wood 139 

124  Cherry  Cion  on  Plum  Stock  .          .          .          .140 

125  Defective  Pear  Bud  Graft  on  Quince  Stock  .  140 

126  Propagation  in  Greenhouses  ....   142 

127  Weeping  Mulberry  on  Erect  Stem  .          .          .   143 

128  Digging  Two- Year  Nursery  Trees  by  Horse 

Power         .         .         .         ...         .  144 

129  Cuttings  and  Whip  Graft       .         .         .         .145 

130  Two-Year  Spy  Budded  Trees  .         .         .         .147 

131  Burlapped  for  Shipment  .          .          .147 

132  Greatly  Magnified  Section  Through  Young 

Graft 148 

133  Steam  Tree  Digger  in  Big  Nursery  .          .          .150 

134  Uniform  Block  of  One-Year  Budded  Bartlett 

Pears 152 

135  Stages  of  Cleft  Grafting 154 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  Xvii 

Fig.  Page 

136  Young  Apple  Root  Graft         ..         „  "     .  .   160 

137  Graft  Wrapping  Machine     '  .'        .         i  .161 

138  Grafters'  or  Budders'  Kit       .          ...  .   161 

139  Digging  Large  Trees  for  Shipment  .          .  .   162 

140  Cutting  on  Dahlia  Tuber          .                    .  .164 

141  Swellings  Due  to  Graftage       .          .         .  .165 

142  Bordeaux  Mixing  for  Small  Nursery       .  .   166 

143  Handy  Style  of  Tree  Caliper  .          .          .  .167 

144  Why  Root  Pruning  Is  Desirable   .          .  .168 

145  Tree  Digger  at  Work  in  Pear  Nursery  Row     170 

146  Wire  Protector  Against  Mice  and  Rabbits  .   172 

147  Bundles   of   Cions   for   Shipment    .          .  .173 

148  Planting  a  Burlapped  Evergreen    .          .  .   174 

149  Heeling-in  Trees  for  Winter  Storage       .  .   177 

150  Peach  Pit  Planter  .          .,        ,          .          .  '  .178 

151  Graft   Planting        .          .          .  .179 

152  Nursery  Tree  Digger     .          .          .  .179 

153  Moving  Large  Trees       .          .          .  .180 

154  Transplanting  in  Loose  Soil  ....   181 

155  Herbaceous  Grafting  and  Budding  .          .  .  182 

156  Hand   Method   of   Planting   Nursery   Stock  .   184 

157  Grape  Grafting       ......  185 

158  Negro  Women  Are  Largely  Employed  in 

Southern  Nurseries      .....  187 

159  Stages  in  Grafted  Apple  Tree  Production  .   188 

160  Large  Trees  Are  Conveniently  Handled  by 

Truck .190 

161  Spading  in  Nursery  Stock       .          .    ^   .  .  192 

162  First  Pruning  of  Budded  Tree       .         .  .193 

163  Street  Tree  Specifications       .          .         .  .194 

164  Trimming  an  Ornamental  Tree  for  Form  .  .  197 

165  Bundle  of  Whole  Root  Grafts  .         .         .  .198 

166  Grafted  Chestnut  Bearing  at  Two  Years  .  .  199 

167  "Sprouting"  Budded  Nursery  Stock         .  .  201 

168  Three  Unusual  Styles  of  Grafting  .  .  202 

169  Unpacking  and  Heeling-in  Nursery  Stock  .  203 

Grafting  in  Various  Stages   .          .  .  205 


XV111  LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig.  Page 

171  Trees  Stacked  in  Frost-Proof  Nursery  Cellar  .   206 

172  English   "Cleft"    Graft 208 

173  Packing  Nursery  Stock  for  Shipment       .          .   209 

174  Nursery  Storage  House  Scenes  .  .          .   210 

175  Three  Methods  of  Bench  Grafting  Grapes         .   211 

176  Grafted  Grape  Vine       .          .          .          .          .213 

177  Grafting  Conifers 214 

178  Grafted  Grapes 216 

179  Two  Styles  of  Crown  Grafting       .          .          .217 

180  Trencher  and  Row  Marker     .          .          .          .218 

181  Gauge  for  Cutting  Grape  Stocks   .          .          .219 

182  Nursery  Tree  Pests 221 

183  Large  Trees  Baled  for  Shipment   .          .          .222 

184  Smith's  Improved  Method  of  Grafting  .          .  223 

185  Skein  of  Raffia        .         .         .         .         .         .225 

186  Inarching .227 

187  Popular    Grafting    Methods    ....  228 

188  Various  Styles  of  Grafting  Knives  .          .          .  231 

189  Tongue   Grafting    ......   232 

190  Students  Planting  Root  Grafts       .          .          .233 

191  Whip  Grafts  with  Too  Much  Callus       .          .  235 

192  Nursery   Dibbles 236 

193  Firming  Newly  Planted  Grafts       .          .          .237 

194  Grafting  and   Budding  Tool   Kit    .          .          .  239 

195  Side  and  Terminal  Grafts       .          .          .          .240 

196  Newly  Sprouted  Cleft  Graft  .         .         .         .241 

197  Large   Tree   Caliper        .         .         .         .      •  .  243 

198  Packing  Shrubs  and  Trees  in  Bale  .          .          .245 

199  Bottle  Grafting .249 

200  Uncommon  Methods  of  Budding  .         .          .  250 

201  Graft  Planting  Methods          .          .          ...  252 

202  The  Process  of  Shield  Budding       .         .         .  257 

203  Securing  Bud  Sticks       .          .          .          ...  258 

204  Various  Styles  of  Budding  Knives  .          .          .259 

205  Bud  Sprout  Tied  to  Stock       .         .         .         .262 

206  Cold  Box  Method  of  Storing  Cion  Wood  .          .   263 

207  Methods  of  Digging  Nursery  Stock       .          .   268 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  XIX 

Fig.  Page 

208  Modern  Method  of  Digging-  Nursery  Stock     .   270 

209  Up-to-date  Nursery  Spraying  Outfit       .          .   274 

210  Trees  in  Fumigation  House  Ready  for  Fumi- 

gation         .          .         .         .         .         .         .  276 

211  Apple  Tree  Grades .281 

212  Sour  Cherry  Trees 283 

213  Digging  California  Privet  with  10-Mule  Team  288 


CHAPTER  I 
INTRODUCTION 

1.  Plant  propagation  is  the  multiplication  or  increase 
in  number  of  plants  in  the  perpetuation  of  the  species. 
As  applied  by  man,  it  includes  knowledge  of  the  proper 
time,  place  and  manner  in  which  best  results  may  be 
secured.     Fundamentally   it  is  based   upon    (a)    certain 
natural  laws  or  principles  which  constitute  the  science, 
and    (b)    certain   methods   of   manipulation   which   con- 
stitute the  art  of  the  processes  as  a  whole. 

2.  Art    and    science    contrasted. — Art    is    merely    the 
knowledge    of    methods    without    reference    to    reasons 
whereby  results  may  be  secured.     It  therefore  implies 
skill   gained  through  practice.     Science  deals  with  the 
underlying  reasons  for  certain  forms  of  procedure,  and 
the  conditions  which  affect  the  process  without  consid- 
ering the  skill  involved  in  manipulation. 

To  illustrate :  A  workman  in  a  nursery  (Fig.  110)  may  easily 
transplant  4,000  potted  dahlia  plants  in  a  day  of  10  hours  without 
knowing  anything  specific  of  the  underlying  principles;  whereas, 
the  proprietor  may  know  the  principles  and  give  proper  orders  for 
their  application  without  being  able  to  transplant  half  as  many  plants 
in  the  same  time,  yet  he  may  be  a  master  workman  because  of  his 
knowledge  of  both  the  art  and  the  science.  The  art  is  best  acquired 
by  following  the  example  of  a  skilled  workman ;  the  science  best 
from  books  and  instructors. 

3.  Natural  and  artificial  methods. — All  methods  em- 
ployed by  man  are  adaptations  or  improvements  upon 
natural  methods,  instances  of  the  application  of  which 
may  be  found  in  nature.     For  this  reason  they  should 
hardly  be  called  artificial,  though  they  are  often  so  termed. 

4.  Natural  methods  of  propagation  differ  in  the  three 
general   classes   of   plants.     Annuals   and   biennials   all 
propagate  themselves  by  seeds,  of  which  they  usually  pro- 
duce an  abundance.     They  are  not  propagated  artificially 


2  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

by  any  asexual  methods ;  first,  because  the  abundance  of 
seed  obviates  the  need  of  doing  so,  and,  second,  because 
few  of  them  can  be  so  propagated  without  difficulty. 

Many  warm  climate  plants  used  for  ornamental  bed- 
ding in  gardens  (coleus,  geranium,  achyranthes),  though 
perennials  in  their  native  countries,  are  made  to.  live  as 
"stock  plants"  (145)  from  year  to  year  in  greenhouses 
though  out  of  doors  they  are  treated  as  annuals.  They 
are,  therefore,  so  propagated. 

Perennials  may  or  may  not  propagate  by  seeds.  They 
may,  therefore,  be  propagated  by  one  or  the  other  or  both 
these  methods  according  to  convenience,  economy  or 
some  other  consideration.  When  they  do  not  propagate 


FIG.    1— MAKING   CUTTINGS    IN    BIG    COMMERCIAL   GREENHOUSE 
The  man  on  the  left  is  doing  the  "rough  work";  the  man  on  the  right  is  "finishing." 

by  seeds,  they  do  so  by  buds,  of  which  they  generally 
produce  an  abundance,  either  upon  the  branches  and 
sometimes  the  leaves,  or  on  roots  or  other  underground 
parts.  Thus,  while  the  parent  perennial  plant  may  die, 
man  (and  sometimes  the  plant  itself)  may  take  advan- 
tage of  either  its  seeds  or  its  buds  in  perpetuation. 


INTRODUCTION  3 

For  instance,  the  underground  stems  of  quack  grass  and  bind- 
weed are  capable  of  producing  a  new  plant  from  every  joint,  as 
every  farmer  and  gardener  knows  to  his  sorrow.  Again,  should  it 
be  deemed  necessary,  the  California  big  tree  which  at  the  estimated 
age  of  5,000  years  is  steadily  becoming  extinct,  thanks  largely  to 
human  activity,  might  be  given  another  5,000-year  start  by  propagat- 
ing  it  from  its  buds  by  cuttings  (Fig.  99).  The  process  might  again 
be  repeated  50  centuries  later  and  so  on  without  a  limit. 


FIG.  2— TIGER   LILY   AND    BULBLETS 

1.  Notice  bulblets  in  leaf  axils.      2.  Bulblets  rooting  a  -few  days  after  falling  off 
plants. 

5.  Life  cycles  of  plants. — Every  plant  normally  passes 
through  a  life  cycle  or  history.  The  seed  germinates  or 
sprouts;  the  plant  vegetates,  blooms,  bears  seed  and 
sooner  or  later  dies.  Life  cycles  vary  in  duration  from 
a  few  days  or  weeks  (peppergrass  and  portulaca)  to  many 


4  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

centuries  (big  trees,  giant  redwood  of  California  and  cer- 
tain species  of  oak  and  pine).  Under  normal  (or  natural) 
conditions,  the  duration  of  the  life  cycle  of  any  species 
may  vary  considerably  because  perhaps  of  inherited  vigor 
or  environment  or  both. 

For  instance,  in  a  sowing  of  garden  carrots  a  few  plants  may  "run 
to  seed"  the  first  season,  though  the  general  life  cycle  of  this  veg- 
etable is  two  years ;  conversely,  some  annuals,  as  radish,  may  fail  to 
seed  the  first  year,  but  send  up  flower  stalks  the  following  season. 
Such  cases  are,  however,  exceptional. 

So  far  as  known,  no  plant  lives  indefinitely,  though  by 
the  application  of  certain  methods  of  propagation  exist- 
ence may  be  continued  beyond  the  duration  of  the  normal 
life  cycle  of  the  plant  so  treated. 

For  instance,  the  geranium,  which  is  normally  a  warm  climate 
plant,  easily  killed  in  cold  climates  by  frost,  may  be  propagated  by 
means  of  cuttings,  and  thus  not  only  its  numbers  increased  indef- 
initely, but  its  life  thus  extended  by  asexual  generation.  In  one 
sense  this  is  not  strictly  extending  the  life  cycle  of  the  individual 
plant,  for  the  original  stem  and  roots  are  generally  thrown  away  as 
having  served  their  purpose. 

Because  all  plants  normally  reach  the  limits  of  their 
life  cycles,  some  method  of  propagation  is  necessary  if 
they  are  to  be  perpetuated ;  otherwise  they  will  be  lost. 
To  prevent  this  contingency  among  flowering  plants, 
nature  usually  provides  ample  seed,  though  in  some  cases 
asexual  methods  have  been  developed.  Strawberries 
propagate  by  means  of  runners  (102)  ;  certain  dogwoods 
by  stolons  (123) ;  black  raspberries  by  layers  (96)  ; 
houseleeks  by  rosettes  (126)  ;  cannas  by  rhizomes  (122)  ; 
banyan  trees  by  aerial  roots  from  limbs;  mangroves  by 
their  "knees"  or  prop  roots;  Irish  potatoes  by  tubers 
(128)  ;  and  so  on. 

6.  The  term  environment  is  used  to  include  all  the  ex- 
ternal influences  that,  as  a  whole,  affect  a  living  organism 
in  any  way.     Among  the  principal  factors  that  make  up 
environment  are  heat,  light,  moisture,  and  food  supply. 

7.  Duration  of  life  cycle  determines  the  three  general 
groups  of  plants ;  annuals,  biennials  and  perennials. 


INTRODUCTION  5 

a.  Annuals  complete  their  cycle  in  one  season  or  less — 
oats,  radish,  cosmos,  purslane. 

b.  Biennials  require  two  growing  seasons,  or  parts  of 
two — hollyhock,  turnip,  mullein.     The  root  lives  through 
the  winter  of  a  cold  climate  or  has  a  dormant  period  in  a 
warm  or  arid  one,  and  resumes  activity  when  conditions 
again  become  favorable  to  growth.     Before  the  second 
season  of  growth  closes  they  mature  their  seeds  and  die. 

c.  Perennials  live  from  year  to  year  and  produce  seed 


FIG.   3— PRICKING    OUT    PLANTS    IN    SHADED    COLD    FRAME 

The  men  have  to  bend  over  to  the  level   of  their  feet  to   place  the  plants  in   the 
soil    in    front    of    them. 

or  fail  to  do  so.  They  are  divided  into  three  classes — 
herbaceous,  woody,  and  shrubs  and  trees,  a.  Herbaceous 
perennials  have  perennial  roots  but  annual  tops — aspara- 
gus, peony,  saccaline,  bindweed,  b.  Woody  perennials 
have  perennial  roots  but  biennial  stems — the  bramble 
fruits  (raspberry,  blackberry,  dewberry),  c.  Shrubs  and 
trees  are  woody  in  both  root  and  stem,  and  persist  from 
year  to  year  without  a  definite  loss. 


PLAXT     PROPAGATION 


8.  Plant  propagation  methods,  of  which  there  are  many, 
naturally  divide  themselves  into  two  general  classes  de- 
pendent upon  whether  seed  bodies  (spores  or  seeds)  or 
buds  are  used.  Propagation  by  spores  is  so  nearly  akin 
to  that  by  seeds  that  the  two  are  usually  classed  under 
the  one  head — Seedage.  Because  propagation  by  means 
of  seeds  is  dependent  upon  the  previous  action  of  the 

reproductive  organs 
(pistils  and  stamens)  it 
is  called  sexual;  that  by 
means  of  buds,  in  which 
no  such  action  occurs,  is 
termed  asexual.  This 
term  is  also  extended  to 
plant  reproduction  by 
true  and  adventitious 
buds. 

9.  Spores  are  asexual, 
f   usually  one-celled,  repro- 
ductive  bodies  of  flow- 
erless  plants.    A  striking 

difference  between  them  and  seeds  is  that  they  contain  no 
embryo.  While  reproduction  of  plants  from  spores  is  not 
dependent  on  sex,  as  in  flowering  plants,  the  process  is, 
practically  speaking,  a  sexual  one.  (Compare  Seeds,  10.) 

To  illustrate,  the  black  or  brown  spots  (called  sori)  beneath  the 
fronds  of  many  ferns,  produce  hundreds-  or  thousands  of  spores. 
These  germinate  on  moist  surfaces  and  produce  small  plant  bodies 
(prothalia)  each  of  which  develop  two  distinct  growths,  an  arche- 
gonium  and  an  antheridium,  which  correspond  respectively  to  the 
pistils  and  the  stamens  of  flowering  plants  and  are,  therefore,  the 
essential  organs  of  reproduction  in  flowerless  plants.  When,  during 
the  process  of  growth,  an  antheridium  unites  with  an  archegonium, 
a  sperm  cell  from  the  former  fertilizes  the  egg  cell  in  the  latter  and 
a  little  plant  is  produced — a  fern,  a  moss,  a  mushroom,  or  some  other 
flowerless  plant,  according  to  the  species. 

Spores  are  of  interest  to  the  horticulturist  because  they  produce 
ferns,  mosses,  mushrooms,  fire-fanging  fungi  (137),  and  many 
plant  diseases  such  as  apple  scab,  wheat  rust,  black  knot  of  cherry 
and  plum,  downy  mildew  of  grape,  etc. 


FIG.  4— CRACKED   SOIL 

Bad     physical     condition     due     to 
vegetable  matter.     Such  soil   dries  out  deeply 
because    of    the    cracks. 


INTRODUCTION  7 

10.  Seeds  are  fertilized  ovules,  structures  which  when 
mature  include  rudimentary  plants  (embryos)  protected 
while  dormant  by  seed  coats  and  containing  nutriment 
either  in  or  around  the  cotyledons  to  supply  the  needs 
of  growth.  Since  the  production  of  seeds  is  due  to  the 
fertilization  of  ovules  by  pollen,  the  process  is  called 
sexual ;  hence  the  term  sexual  reproduction  is  often 
extended  to  include  seedage.  In  beet,  chard,  and  some 


FIG.  5— WEEDING   POTTED   PLANTS   IN  COLD  FRAME 

other  plants,  the  "seeds"  are  really  the  dried  fruits  or 
capsules  which  contain  several  to  many  seeds  (p.  49). 

11.  Seeds  vary  greatly  in  size  from  that  of  the  dust-like 
orchid  and  begonia    to    that    of    Seychelles    cocoanuts, 
which  sometimes  weigh  40  pounds,  and  are  18  inches  in 
girth. 

12.  The  micropyle  is  a  minute  opening  through  the 
seed  coats.     Through  it  the  pollen  tube  enters  the  ovule 
and  the  radicle  emerges  during  the  process  of  germina- 
tion.    Often  it  is  almost  invisible  until  the  seeds  begin  to 


8 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


germinate.     In  Lima  bean  it  is  seen  close  to  the  hilum. 

13.  The  hilum  of  a  seed  is  the  scar  left  by  the  separa- 
tion of  the  seed  from  the  placenta  of  the  ovary. 

14.  The  embryo  usually  consists  of  three  parts ;  cotyle- 
dons or  seed  leaves ;  plumule  or  rudimentary  stem  with 
its  attached  leaves  between  the  cotyledons;  and  the  cau- 
licle  or  first  internode  or  length  between  joints  of  the 
stem  below  the  cotyledons  and  above  the  true  root. 

15.  The  number  of  cotyledons  is  used  to  divide  plants 
into  three  classes :  Monocotyledonous,  or  plants  with  only 
one  cotyledon  (asparagus,  lily  and  grasses  such  as  corn 
and  bamboo)  ;  dicotyledonous,  plants  with  two  cotyledons 
(radish,     marigold,     dandelion)  ;     and    polycotyledonous, 
plants  with   more  than  two  cotyledons   (pine,  spruce.) 

16.  Farm  and  garden  crops  are  almost  all  grown  from 
__    seeds.    Irish  potatoes  and  sugar 

cane  produce  more  or  less  seed, 
but  this  is  not  used  except  to 
develop  new  varieties.  Jeru- 
salem artichoke,  sweet  potato, 
tarragon  and  horseradish  (17) 
no  longer  naturally  produce 
seed,  so  must  be  propagated  by 
asexual  methods.  Tree  and 
small  fruits  do  not  come  true 
to  name  or  variety  from  seed ; 
the  seedlings  are  almost  always 
inferior  in  some  way  or  ways 
to  varieties  propagated  asexually. 

17.  Horseradish  from  seed.— A  Hungarian  experimenter  has  pro- 
duced horseradish  seed  by  ringing.     Two  types  of  plants  were  pro- 
duced.    Had  their  origin  not  been  known  they  would  hardly  have 
been  classed  as  the  same  species.  Hence  the  author  concludes  that 
horseradish  is  only  a  hybrid  and  that  the  contrasting  forms  result 
from  breaking  this  hybrid  into  its  original  types. 

18.  The  essential  organs  of  flowers  are  the  pistils  which 
contain    the    ovules    or    unfertilized    and    undeveloped 
"eggs,"  and  the  stamens  which  contain  in  their  anthers 


Above,      making      holes; 

dibbling-in    seedlings. 


INTRODUCTION  9 

the  pollen  necessary  to  fertilize  the  ovules.  Usually 
petals  and  sepals  (non-essential  organs)  are  associated 
with  the  essential  organs,  either  for  protection  or  to 
attract  insects,  humming  birds  and  other  creatures  upon 
which  fertilization  of  many  plants  depends.  Some 
flowers,  such  as  lizards-tail,  are  naked ;  that  is,  they  have 
neither  petals  nor  sepals,  at  least  during  the  fertilizing 
period.  Others,  such  as  snowball  and  hydrangea  and  the 
ray  flowers  of  many  composites,  often  have  neither  pistils 
nor  stamens.  They  are,  therefore,  called  sterile. 

19.  The  pistil  consists  of  two  essential  parts,  the  stigma 
and  the  ovary.     It  may  or  may  not  have  a  style  or  stalk 
joining  these  two  parts;  or  rather,  when  the  style  is  very 
short  it  is  said  to  be  sessile. 

20.  Ovules  are  small  growths  on  the  interior  walls  of 
the  ovaries.     They  usually  consist  of  two  layers,  which 
inclose  the   embyro   sac.     This  sac  consists  of  several 
cells,  one  of  which  is  the  egg  cell. 

21.  Fertilization  of  flowers  is  the  rendering  viable  of 
ovules  by  the  pollen.     It  is  almost  always  between  plants 
of  the  same  species,  and  usually  between  flowers  of  dif- 
ferent plant  individuals.  When  plants  of  different  species 
or  genera  unite  by  means  of  the  pollen  of  one  fertilizing 
the  ovules  of  another,  the  resulting  plants  are  called 
hybrids.     Comparatively  few  tree  fruits  will   hybridize, 
but   several   of   the   bush  fruits   and   many   ornamental 
plants  have  done  so.     Almost  always  hybrids  of  trees 
and  shrubs  must  be  propagated  asexually. 

Examples  of  hybridization  are  Kieffer,  Le  Conte  and  Garber  pears, 
Rogers'  grapes,  wild  goose  plum,  Wilson  blackberry,  Shaffer  rasp- 
berry and  many  varieties  of  roses,  cannas,  begonias,  gladioli, 
fuchsias,  etc. 

22.  The  fertilization  process  in  flowers  is  essentially  as 
follows :     Ripe  pollen  is  discharged  from  the  anthers  in 
the  same  or  some  other  flower,  generally  of  the  same 
species.     It  reaches  the  "ripe"  or  receptive  stigma  of  the 
pistil  either  through  the  agency  of  wind,  insects  or  some 


10  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

other  way  peculiar  to  the  individual  species  of  plant. 
The  stigma  being  moist,  sticky  or  hairy  when  receptive, 
holds  the  pollen  grains  until  they  germinate.  In  ger- 
mination they  extend  growths  downward  through  the 
style  to  the  ovary,  where  they  reach  the  ovules,  which 
they  enter  through  small  openings  called  micropyles 
(one  in  each  ovule).  After  entrance,  the  sperm  cell  con- 
tained in  the  pollen  grain  unites  with  the  egg  cell  of  the 
ovule,  and  the  ovule,  now  said  to  be  fertilized,  develops 
into  an  embryo  plant  covered  with  the  ovule  wall,  which 
develops  into  the  seed  coat  of  the  ripened  seed. 


FIG.    7— LATH    HOUSE    FOR    SUMMER    PROPAGATION 
This  provides  partial  shade   and  helps  retain   moisture   in  the  soil. 

23.  The  ripened  ovary  with  its  seed  is  called  the  peri- 
carp or  seed  case.    It  may  be  simple,  as  in  pea  and  radish, 
or  complex,  as  in  plum  and  raspberry.  Botanically  speak- 
ing, the  ripened  ovary  with,  in  some  cases,  other  parts 
united  to  it,  is  called  the  fruit.     Horticulturally  speaking, 
a  fruit  is  an  edible  pericarp.     In  some  instances  the  edible 
part  is  the  seed  case  (peach,  cantaloupe)  ;  in  others,  the 
seed  itself  (corn,  almond)  ;  again,  it  is  mainly  the  swelled 
flower  calyx   (apple,  pear)  ;  and  yet  again  the  swelled 
receptacle  with  the  seeds  (strawberry,  blackberry). 

24.  Seeds  contain  plant  food  in  the  cotyledons  or  other 
parts  to  support  the  seedling  plants  during  germination 
and  until  they  are  able  to  support  themselves.     Not  until 


INTRODUCTION 


the  radicle  has  formed  root  hairs  can  plant  food  be  taken 
from  the  soil  (or  other  medium  in  which  the  seedlings 
are  being  grown)  ;  and  not  until  the  plumule  has  formed 
green  leaves  can  such  plant  food  be  worked  over  to  form 


The   seeds    are 


FIG.    8— GERMINATION    IN    CLOTH 
in   rows   on   the  cloth  kept   damp    by   sand    in   the   tray  below. 


plant  tissue.  Until  then  the  seedling  lives  on  the  food 
stored  in  the  seed  by  the  parent  plant.  This  food  in- 
cludes starches  or  sugars,  cellulose,  fat,  proteids  or  liquids 
or  combinations  of  two  or  more  of  these  materials. 

Fully  ripened  dry  seeds  are  highly  resistant  to  outside 
influences;   in  some  cases  (squash,  pine)  continuing  vital 


12  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

or  viable  for  many  years  (p.  49).  It  must  be  remarked, 
however,  that  the  stories  about  the  germination  of  seeds 
taken  from  ancient  tombs,  as  from  the  pyramids  of  Egypt, 
are  untrue.  Among  the  seeds  so  delivered  to  the  gullible 
is  Indian  corn,  which,  being  an  American  plant,  was  not 
known  to  the  ancient  Egyptians! 

25.  Seed  dissemination  is  accomplished  naturally  in 
three  general  ways — wind,  water  and  animals. 

Wind  plays  an  important  part  in  transporting  very 
light  seeds,  especially  such  as  are  provided  with  append- 
ages which  buoy  them  up.  Willow,  poplar,  thistle,  dan- 
delion, milkweed,  sycamore  and  similar  seeds  are  thus 
carried  long  distances.  Wind  also  helps  carry  heavier 
seeds  provided  with  wings  that  whirl  or  flutter  in  the  air 


FIG.  9— BRUSH  SCREEN  TO  SHADE  PLANTS  OUT  OF  DOORS 
Used   mainly   for   slow-sprouting  seeds   and   plants    such    as   conifers. 

and  thus  check  descent  more  or  less.  Maple,  elm,  white- 
wood,  box  elder,  basswood,  ash  and  other  winged  seeds 
may  be  carried  several  hundred  or  thousand  feet,  depend- 
ing upon  the  strength  of  the  wind. 

Water  transports  seeds  that  float  readily  much  greater 
distances  than  it  does  those  that  sink.  Among  the  best 
examples  are  apples,  walnuts  and  acorns.  Water  also 
transports  seeds  that  are  carried  by  wind  and  by  animals. 
It  is,  therefore,  the  most  general  agent  of  the  three. 

Animals  carry  seeds  in  one  or  the  other  of  three  ways : 
either,  first,  attached  to  their  bodies  (burs,  beggar-lice, 
stick-tights,  Spanish  needles,  etc.)  ;  or,  second,  in  their 
intestines,  where  the  juices  of  digestion  fail  to  break  down 
the  protective  coverings  of  the  seeds  (blackberry,  cherry, 


INTRODUCTION  13 

pokeweed,  plum,  etc.)  ;  or,  third,  by  burying  them  for 
later  use  as  food  and  then  failing  to  dig  them  up.  Squir- 
rels are  perhaps  most  active  in  this  way :  they  bury  im- 
mense numbers  of  nuts  and  acorns. 

Man  in  his  various  activities  is  the  greatest  of  all  seed 
distributors.  Consciously  and  purposely  he  collects  seed 
in  all  parts  of  the  world  and  transports  it  to  places  where 


FIG.    10— PRICKING    OUT    SEEDLINGS    IN    FLAT 
Note  the  "spotting"  board  for  spacing  the  plants  evenly. 

it  is  to  be  planted ;  unconsciously  he  carries  weed  seeds 
in  bedding  and  packing,  on  ships  and  trains.  He  may 
accidentally  or  purposely  mix  such  seeds  with  valuable 
ones  and  thus  introduce  them  where  the  shipments  are 
distributed.  The  progress  of  the  race  westward  from 
India,  Assyria,  Palestine,  Egypt,  the  Mediterranean  and 
Northern  Europe  to  America  and  Australasia  may  thus  be 
traced  by  weeds  and  cultivated  plants  carried  by  man. 

26.  Seed  transportation  is  conducted  upon  an  extensive 
scale  by  scores  of  wholesale  and  retail  seed  merchants  in 


14  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

all  parts  of  the  world.  The  rules  herein  presented  (29), 
especially  those  concerning  moisture  and  heat,  are  fol- 
lowed with  great  care.  Seeds  such  as  acorns  are  very 
difficult  to  transport  long  distances.  Usually  thick- 
coated  and  bony  seeds  require  moist,  confined  air;  thin- 
shelled  ones,  dry  conditions.  For  shipping  to  or  through 
the  tropics  seeds  are  usually  sealed  in  tin  cases  or  oiled 
packages.  Most  seeds,  however,  sent  through  ordinary 
cool  climates,  after  being  thoroughly  air  dried,  need  be 
placed  only  in  cotton  sacks,  large  paper  packages  or 
manila  envelopes.  Apple,  pear  and  other  small  seeds  are 
often  mixed  with  powdered  charcoal. 

Often  more  satisfactory  results  may  be  secured  by 
growing  the  seedlings  of  species  very  difficult  to  ship  in 
the  seed  form  and  shipping  these  either  actively  growing 
in  wardian  cases  or  dormant  as  nursery  stock.  The 
former  method  is  not  much  practiced;  the  latter  is  the 
favorite  method  of  nurserymen. 

27.  The  rest  period  of  seeds  is  that  interval  between 
the  apparent  maturity  of  the  seeds  upon  the  parent  plant 
and  the  time  when  the  seeds  will  germinate  under  con- 
ditions normal  to  the  species.  Such  seeds  apparently 
cannot  be  made  to  sprout  earlier.  A 
majority  of  garden  seeds  will  sprout 
within  a  month  of  the  time  they  mature  ; 
a  few  almost  without  any  delay.  It  is  no 
uncommon  thing  for  seeds  of  cereals  to 
sprout  while  still  in  the  head,  should 
the  weather  be  wet  for  a  considerable 
time  at  harvest.  The  mangrove  normal- 
ly sprouts  its  seeds  while  still  attached 
to  the  parent  plant.  The  rest  period  is 

POTFIGPLilte,NG  rfally  a  tj™6  rof  chemical  change  or 
a.  pot  in  soil,  b,  dibble,  ripening  of  the  foods  stored  in  the  seeds. 
It  may  be  broken  by  drying,  freezing,  chemicals,  or  by 
freezing  and  thawing. 


INTRODUCTION 


Howard  and  Whitten  of  Missouri  planted  about  200  species  of 
seeds  representing  51  genera  to  determine  whether  seeds  in  general 
are  capable  of  germinating  immediately  after  ripening  if  placed  in 
favorable  conditions.  Seeds  of  grass,  lily,  pink,  mallow,  legume  and 
composite  families  seem  to  have  no  rest  period,  while  rose,  cashew 
and  vine  families  have  a  pronounced  one.  In  general  seeds  of  woody 
plants  have  a  more  pronounced  rest  period  and  are  more  dif- 
ficult to  force  into  growth  than  seeds  of  vegetable  and  other  her- 


i   % 


FIG.     12— TWO    STYLES    OF     PLANT     PROTECTORS    OR    "FORCERS" 

1,  closed  paper-sided  protector  with  glass  top.  2  and  3,  forcers  in  field 
use.  4,  open-sided  protector  with  adjustable  glass  front  which  allows  of  ventila- 
tion. 


FIG.   13— CHARACTERISTIC   FORMS  OF  SEEDLINGS 

Top,  left  to  right:  Spinach,  salsify,  bean,  salsify.  Second  row:  Beet,  corn 
sunflower,  lettuce.  Third  row:  White  oak,  garden  pea,  lettuce,  onion.  Bottom  row: 
Sunflower,  cardoon,  fennel,  carrot. 

16 


INTRODUCTION  17 

baceous  plants.  Variation  in  length  and  intensity  of  the  rest  period 
is  greater  between. species  than  within  species.  Etherization  tends 
to  stimulate  seeds  into  early  growth  and  to  increase  the  percentage 
of  total  germination.  Soaked  and  stratified  seeds  are  more  strongly 
affected  by  ether  than  are  dry  seeds.  A  12-hour  exposure  to  ether 
seems  the  most  favorable  dose  to  force  seeds  to  germinate. 

28.  Handling  fleshy  fruit  seeds. — Seeds  of  many  fruits 
must  be  freed  from  their  fleshy  or  pulpy  coverings  before 
they  can  be  stored  or  planted.     When  there  is  no  danger 
of  injury  to  them  the  fruits  may  be  crushed  or  ground. 
For  instance,  apples  are  so  treated,  the  pomace  mixed 
with  water  and  allowed  to  stand  until  the  pulp  has  par- 
tially fermented.     The  process  requires  a  week  to  two 
or  three,  depending  mainly  upon  the  temperature  and  the 
character  of  the  pulp.     The  seeds  become  separated  from 
the  pulp  and  sink  to  the  bottom.     An  occasional  vigorous 
stirring  aids  the  process  of  separation.  The  pulp   is  fi- 
nally poured  off,  the  seeds  collected,  re-washed  and  dried. 

Soft  fruits,  such  as  blueberries,  raspberries,  strawber- 
ries, and  cranberries,  are  often  treated  in  this  way,  though 
they  are  perhaps  as  often  handled  like  tomatoes,  cucum- 
bers, melons  and  other  fruits,  merely  crushed  under  water 
and  then  washed,  the  pulp  being  skimmed  off  and  the 
seeds  allowed  to  settle. 

Sometimes  the  separation  requires  chemical  treatment 
to  get  rid  of  unnecessary  membranes.  For  instance,  the 
membranes  of  persimmon  seeds  may  be  easily  removed 
after  a  soaking  in  weak  caustic  potash  solution  (a  stick 
to  a  pailful  of  water). 

Fresh  ashes,  lime  and  lye  are  of  great  help  in  freeing 
many  seeds  of  their  resinous  coverings. 

29.  Points  to  remember  about  seeds. — In  Bulletin  58 
of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  J.  W.  F.  Duvel  writes 
in  substance  as  follows,  except  where  brackets  are  used : 

A.  Seeds  are  living  organisms  and  must  be  properly  treated  to  get 
good  results  when  sown.  [They  are  dormant  creatures.  Or  to  use 
an  analogy,  they  are  combined  physical  and  chemical  laboratories 
which  need  only  the  proper  conditions  of  moisture,  heat  and  oxygen 
to  get  them  in  operation.] 


1 8  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

B.  The  most  important  factors  that  determine  vitality  are  ma- 
turity,   harvest    weather    conditions    and    ways    of    harvesting    and 
curing. 

C.  Immature  seeds  soon  after  ripening  usually  sprout  well,  but  if 
stored   lose   vitality   rapidly;    well-matured   seeds   harvested   under 
favorable  conditions  should  keep  long. 

D.  Seeds  harvested  in  damp  weather  have  less  vitality  than  those 
harvested  in  dry  weather. 

E.  Seeds  once  injured  never  regain  full  vigor. 

F.  While  proper  curing  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  great  care 
is  needed  to  prevent  heating,  since  this  reduces  vitality. 


FIG.    14— SEED   AND    BULB   DRYING   SHED 
Temporary  poles   and  racks  are  placed  on   the  permanent  poles 

G.  The  life  of  seed  varies  with  the  family,  genera  and  species ;  but 
there  is  no  relation  between  the  longevity  of  plants  and  the  viable 
period  of  the  seed  they  produce.  Some  seeds  lose  their  vitality  in  a 
few  weeks  or  months  [California  poppy],  others  live  for  years 
[melons,  cucumbers]. 

H.  With  special  precautions  the  life  of  seeds  may  be  lengthened 
within  reasonable  limits. 

I.  Certain  seeds  retain  their  vitality  better  in  some  sections  than 
in  others ;  i.  e.,  climate  plays  an  important  part. 

J.  Moisture  is  the  chief  factor  in  determining  the  longevity  of 
seeds  under  cor^nercial  conditions. 

K.  The  bad  effects  of  moisture  are  heightened  where  the  tem- 
perature is  high.  Often  vitality  is  destroyed  in  a  few  weeks  or 


INTRODUCTION  IQ 

months  when  seeds  are  stored  in  a  moist,  warm  climate;  but  where 
the  storage  is  dry,  normal  temperature  ranges  are  not  so  important. 

L.  The  majority  of  carefully  dried  seeds  can  stand  long  exposure 
to  a  temperature  of  98,  but  102  to  104  for  a  similar  time  will  kill 
them.  In  a  moist  air  86  will  soon  cause  injury. 

M.  Seeds  to  be  sent  to  a  moist  climate  should  be  shipped  in  air- 
tight packages,  but  they  must  be  dry  before  being  sealed. 

N.  Seeds  under  ordinary  storage  conditions  respire  most  freely 
when  moisture  is  present,  but  respiration  is  not  necessary  to  their 
life,  because  they  may  be  successfully  kept  even  better  for  a  time 
under  conditions  unfavorable  to  respiration. 


CHAPTER  II 
GERMINATION 

30.  Germination,  botanically  speaking,  is  the  resump- 
tion of  growth  by  the  dormant  embryo  or  young  plant 
in  the  seed.     Popularly  it  is  the  sprouting  of  seeds,  the 
first  step   in  vegetation.     To   enable   the   seed   to   ger- 
minate it  must  have  a  perfectly  developed  embryo,  and 
be  mature  or  nearly  so.     It  must  not  be  too  old  for  its 
species   (p.  49).  It  is  complete  when  growth  has  rup- 
tured the  seed  coats  and  the  embryo  has  emerged. 

31.  How  seedlings  grow. — Seedlings  push  through  the 
soil   by   the   extension   of  their   radicles   or  hypocotyls, 
aided    in    some   cases   by   their   cotyledons.     When   the 
descending  parts  have  taken  hold  of  the  soil  by  means 
of  their  root  hairs,  or  by  lateral  root  growth,  upward 
growth  begins.     Though  in  some  cases   (pea,  oak,  Fig. 
13)  the  cotyledons  descend,  or  at  least  remain  beneath 
the  surface  to  help  anchor  the  seedlings,  they  usually 
"come  up"  above  the  surface  (bean,  radish),  and  often 
turn   green   and  perform   the   functions   of   true   leaves 
(maple,  tomato,  nasturtium).     In  the   former  case  the 
cotyledons  contain  large  quantities  of  food  which  nourish 
the  plantlets ;    in  the  latter  the  role  of  nurse  is  dropped 
as  soon  as  they  turn  green.     Often  while  the  first  true 
leaves   are   expanding,   the    roots   contract   and   extend 
laterally,  thus  drawing  the  little  plants  deeper  in  the  soil 
and  anchoring  them  firmly. 

32.  Growth  in  length  is  due  to  cell  division  and  develop- 
ment at  the  growing  point ;  that  of  girth,  by  cell  division 
and  development  of  the  cambium  and  contiguous  cells. 

33.  Hypocotyl  or  caulicle,  the  first  internode  or  part 
of  stem  below  the  cotyledons  and  above  the  radicle  or 
beginning  of  the  true  root. 

20 


GERMINATION 


2T 


34.  Radicle,  that  part  of  the  embryo  below  the  cotyle- 
dons,  including  the   caulicle   and  the   nascent   root ;   by 
some   botanists   restricted   to   the   extreme  point  of  the 
caulicle  from  which  the  root  develops. 

35.  Factors     of    germination. — Germination     depends 
upon    four    factors :    viability,    water,    free    oxygen    and 


FIG.  15— SHADES  FOR  OUTDOOR  PROPAGATING  BEDS 

1.   Lath   shade.     2.  Cloth   on    frame.     The   shades   may   be   lifted  in   dull   weath 
to    accustom   the  plants   to   the   sun. 


22 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


proper  heat.  The  seed  of  each  species,  and  even  some 
varieties  of  a  single  species  of  plant,  seem  to  demand 
different  degrees  or  quantities  of  one  or  more  of  these 
factors  to  produce  best  results.  The  most  favorable 
combination  of  these  factors  for  each  kind  of  seed  is, 
therefore,  called  the  optimum  for  that  species.  Age  and 
stage  of  maturity  of  the  seeds  exercise  more  or  less 
influence  upon  germination.  Presupposing  viability, 
which  means  ability  to  live,  the  steps  or  stages  of  ger- 
mination are:  1.  Absorption  of 
moisture  by  the  seed.  2.  Conver- 
sion of  stored  food  under  favor- 
able temperature  into  sugars  by 
enzymes  or  natural  ferments.  3. 
Stimulation  of  the  embryo  cells 
into  growth.  4.  Bursting  the 
seed  coat  by  the  swelled  embryo, 
etc. 

36.  Water  is  necessary  in  ger- 
mination because  plant  food  must 
be  in  solution  to  be  of  service  to 
the  embryo.  It  is,  perhaps,  more 
important  than  oxygen  and  heat 
because  too  much  or  too  little  may  prevent  germination. 
Therefore,  in  practice,  it  requires  careful  regulation. 
Generally  it  reaches  the  seed  through  the  soil,  though 
many  seeds  and  spores  sprout  on  any  surface  moist 
enough,  or  any  material  which  will  supply  their  needs. 
In  nature  there  are  many  variations.  Cocoanuts  will  sprout 
among  rocks  where  thrown  up  by  the  sea,  their  roots  sustained  by 
the  "milk"  while  searching  perhaps  several  yards  for  crevices  in 
which  to  secure  a  hold  and  food.  Countless  kinds  of  seeds  blown  by 
wind  or  carried  by  water  sprout  among  mountain  rocks  where  both 
soil  and  water  are  in  very  small  supply.  Spanish  moss  seeds  ger- 
minate on  the  limbs  of  trees.  Mistletoe  does  this  also,  but  the 
sprouts  take  parasitic  root  in  the  tissues  of  the  tree  to  which  they 
attach  themselves. 

Still  water  retards  germination.  In  the  case  of  buckwheat  grown 
experimentally,  most  seeds  sprouted  in  24  hours  in  running  water, 
but  those  in  still  water  took  two  days  or  more. 


FIG.    16— CUTTING    FRAME 

FOR  WINDOW 
A  handy  device  for  school- 
rooms. 


GERMINATION  23 

37.  Temperature  variations  influence  seeds  in  germina- 
tion less  than  do  those  of  moisture.  Both,  however, 
should  be  avoided.  Seeds  will  stand  much  heat  and  cold 
if  dry,  but  if  wet,  frost  may  injure  them  and  heat  may 
"cook"  them.  In  seed  storage,  everything  promotive  of 
decay  must  be  avoided.  Especially  must  the  seed  be  kept 


FIG.   17— GLASS  PROTECTORS  FOR  OUTDOOR  PLANTING 

At  left,  F,  panes  of  glass  fitted  together  by  wooden  top.  At  right,  continuous 
plant  forcer:  A,  wire  for  ridge;  a,  b,  outside;  c,  inside;  B.  wire  to  hold  side  panes 
at  d  and  e;  C,  making  section;  D,  completed  section;  E,  continuous  row. 

as  dry  as  possible.  The  room  may  be  even  hot,  provided 
it  is  not  damp.  This  rule  applies  to  small  as  well  as 
large  quantities  of  seeds.  Often  corn,  wheat  and  other 
cereals  improperly  dried  before  shipment  heat  in  transit 
and  are  ruined  both  for  seedage  and  food.  Sometimes 
the  heat  is  great  enough  to  cause  great  losses  in  ware- 
houses and  ships,  in  some  cases  even  starting  fires  by 
spontaneous  combustion. 

38.  Time  of  sowing  out  of  doors,  as  well  as  depth, 
influences  temperature.  Seeds  planted  deeply  in  spring 
may  rot  because  they  are  too  cold ;  and  those  planted 
shallow  in  summer  may  continue  dry  and  thus  fail  to 
sprout.  Hence  early  spring  sowing  of  any  kind  of  seed 
should  be  shallower  than  that  of  the  same  kind  in  late 
spring  or  summer.  No  general  rule  can  be  given,  be- 


24  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

cause  each  species  has  its  own  preferences ;  but  large 
seeds  may  be  sown  two  to  four  times  their  diameters 
and  small  ones  only  slightly  covered — just  enough  to 
hide  them  from  the  light.  Fresh  and  strong  seeds  may 
be  sown  deeper  than  old  or  weak  ones,  because  the  seed- 
lings should  reach  the  surface  with  less  difficulty. 


FIG.     18 — PROPAGATING     BENCH     SHADED    WITH    NEWSPAPERS 

Notice    the    burlap    curtains    beneath    the    bench.      These    give    several    degrees    of 
bottom    heat    when    lowered. 

39.  Light  hinders  some  seeds  from  sprouting  (poppy, 
adonis,  larkspur),  but  has  no  apparent  effect  upon  others. 
Its  influence  upon  germination  is  not  fully  understood. 
Seeds  of  mistletoe,  Spanish  moss  and  many  orchids  ger- 
minate as  well  in  light  as  in  dark  places,  perhaps  even 
better. 

For  these  reasons  it  is  considered  advisable  to  shade 
fine  seeds  and  spores  while  germinating.  Nothing  is  to 
be  gained  by  the  reverse  process.  When  covered  with 
soil  they  are  usually  shaded  enough,  but  when  sown 
upon  or  very  near  the  surface  they  sprout  better 
when  shaded  at  least  partially.  Parsley,  thyme,  mar- 
joram and  other  slow-sprouting  and  small  seeds  do  best 


GERMINATION  25 

in  the  open  under  shade.  This  is,  however,  more  be- 
cause of  controlled  moisture  than  of  light.  Paper  and 
muslin  are  popularly  used  for  shading.  (Figs.  15,  18.) 
When  the  plantlets  have  two  or  more  true  leaves  the 
shade  may  be  removed. 

40.  Influence  of  sunlight  on  seed  germination. — Experiments  in 
Germany  show  that  in  nearly  every  instance  seeds  subjected  to  direct 
rays  of  the  sun  were  retarded  in  germination,  although  the  effect  on 
the  total  germinative  ability  was  not  influenced  in  any  appreciable 
degree,  the  total  number  of  germinations  in  each  lot  being  practically 
the  same.     One  lot  was  germinated  wholly  in  the  dark,  another  re- 
ceived sunlight  44  days,  while  the  control  lot  was  germinated  out  of 
the  direct  rays  of  the  sun. 

41.  Seedlings  grown  without  light.— A.  Bergerstein,  a  German  in- 
vestigator, grew  seedlings  of  more  than  100  species  of  gymnosperms 
to  determine  the  effects  of  light  and  darkness  on  them.     His  general 
conclusions  are  that  except  Ginkgo  and  Ephedra  the  seedlings  be- 
come green  even  in  the  dark.     The  rapidity  of  coloration  varies  with 
the  temperature.     Cycas  and  Zamia,  even  under  favorable  tempera- 
tures,  failed  to  develop  chlorophyll  in   the  total   absence  of  light. 

-  Among  many  conifers,  chlorophyll  is  formed  in  the  dark,  both  in  the 
cotyledons  and  the  hypocotyl  (except  in  LarLv).  Araucaria  pro- 
duced it  in  branches  developed  while  in  the  dark  several  weeks.  In 
Abies  and  Cedrus  the  embryo,  even  in  dormant  seeds,  contains 
chlorophyll.  In  other  species  the  seedlings  begin  to  turn  green  be- 
fore the  seed  coat  is  broken  or  shortly  after  the  emergence  of  the 
radicle.  Conifer  seedlings  in  the  dark  have  shorter  roots  and 
cotyledons,  but  larger  and  thicker  hypocotyls  than  similar  plants 
grown  in  the  light. 

42.  Oxygen  is  usually  in  ample  supply  for  germination. 
It  is  always  present  in  soils  neither  tightly  inclosed  nor 
water  soaked.     Water  plants    (lotus,   water  lily)    have 
special  ability  to  germinate  under  water. 

43.  Depth  to  plant. — Deep  planting  is  unfavorable  to 
germination,  first,  because  the  supply  of  oxygen  is  re- 
stricted and,  second,  because  the  seedlings  may  be  unable 
to  reach  the  surface,  especially  if  the  soil  is  hard.     Under 
glass  the  same  species  of  seeds  may  be  planted  at  twice 
the  depth  employed  in  the  open.     After  planting,  the  soil 
should  be  firmed  lightly  (Fig.  20)  to  avoid  washing  when 
watering.     If  the  soil  is  hard  and  likely  to  bake,  apply  a 
light  mulch  of  old  compost  in  the  rows. 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


FIG.    19— DEEP 
PLANTING  EFFECTS 

Seeds    planted    all    at    one 


44.  Very  small  seeds  (begonia, 
thyme)  are  merely  dusted  on  the 
soil  in  a  seed  "pan"  which  is  sunk 
in  moist  sand  or  moss,  water  never 
being  applied  directly.  (Fig.  95.) 
Sometimes  the  reverse  method  is 
practiced — the  water  being  contain- 
ed in  an  interior  pot  In  each  case  the 
water  seeps  through  the  porous  pot 
and  keeps  the  soil  moist. 

Seeds  the  size  of  celery  are  often 
watered  after  sowing  by  standing 
the  pans  in  shallow  water  until  the 
surface  soil  becomes  moist.  By 
these  methods  the  watering  is 
quickly  done  without  danger  of 
washing  the  seeds  out  of  the  soil. 
Too  much  water  is  as  bad  as  too  lit- 
tle, because  the  soil  becomes  water-logged  and  the  seeds 
decay.  Dampness  throughout  the  whole  soil  is  all  that  is 
needed  in  a  seed  bed,  except  for  aquatic  plants  (water 
lily,  rice).  A  wet  surface  over  a  dry  soil  is  very  bad  -be- 
cause the  roots  cannot  grow  properly.  Hence  seeds  and 
seedlings  should  be  watered  from  below  whenever  pos- 
sible. 

For  large  numbers  of  seeds  and  for 
big  seed  beds,  watering  with  a  hose 
(or  sprinkler)  is  necessary.  Never 
should  a  strong  stream  or  an  open 
hose  be  used  for  such  work,  because 
these  may  either  wash  out  or  bury 
the  seeds,  pack  the  soil  or  do  all  three. 
Florists  and  gardeners  who  grow 
many  plants  under  glass  use  great  A 
care  in  watering  seeds.  They  aim  to 
keep  the  soil  moist,  not  wet,  and  never  logged,  because 


ind    B,    row    markers; 
C,    firming    board 


GERMINATION 


excess  moisture  tends  to  weakening  and  damping-off 
(78)  of  seedlings. 

45.  Aids  to  germination. — Most  seeds  properly  handled 
germinate  freely;  but  seeds  of  certain  families,  the  Um- 
belliferse    especially,    are    slow    (parsley,    carrot,    celery, 
parsnip,  etc.).     These  and  hard,  bony  seeds  (48)  allowed 
to  dry  out  too  much  may  fail  entirely  unless  treated  prior 
to  sowing.     Their  treatment  seeks  to  soften  or  break  the 
seed  coats  so  the  embryos  may  emerge. 

46.  Enzymes  used  experimentally  in  some  cases  increased  the  per- 
centage of  germination  when  the  seeds  were  soaked  several  hours  in 
a  solution  of  some  active  enzyme  or  enzymes ;  the  vigor  of  the  young 
plantlets  was  often  enhanced  at  the  same  time ;    within  limits  these 
good  effects   increase  with  the   strength  of   the  solution ;    diastase 
seems  to  be  the  most  useful ;    tomato  seeds  seem  to  respond  es- 
pecially well  to  diastase. 

47.  Chemicals,   usually   di- 
lute, or  weak  acids  or  alkalies, 
are  sometimes  used  for  seeds 
with  hard,  bony  coats  affected 
neither  by  soaking  nor  freez- 
ing.   They  soften  the  shells  so 
water    may    enter.      Vinegar 
aids    the    seeds    of    bramble 
fruits  (blackberry,  raspberry, 
etc.).     Sulphuric   acid   (com- 
mercial   strength)     is    some- 
times used  for  cotton,  alfalfa 
and  clover  seeds,  the  soaking 
lasting  two  or  three  to  20  min- 
utes     (Fig.    21).      Thorough 
washing  with  water  after  the 
soaking    is    essential.     Great 
care    must    be    exercised    in 
diluting  the  acid.    The    acid 

into  the  full  volume  of  water,  but  the  reverse  order 
must  not  be  followed  because  the  acid  will  "fly."  The 
acid  must  not  touch  the  skin  or  fabrics,  because  it  burns. 


FIG.  21— KENTUCKY  COFFEE 
TREE  SEEDLING 

Sulphuric     acid     made     this     develop- 
ment in   40  days. 

may    be    poured    slowly 


28  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

The  acid  method  is  found  in  nature;  for  seeds  of  many  fruits  are 
softened  by  the  acids  of  the  fruits  themselves  or  by  those  in  the 
stomachs  and  intestines  of  birds  and  animals  that  eat  the  fruits 
(barberry,  cedar,  cherry,  mulberry,  thorn,  etc.). 

48.  Mechanical  helps  are  used  for  seeds  whose  coats 
are  too  hard  to  be  affected  by  any  of  the  methods  so  far 
described.  Filing  or  boring  holes  in  Abyssinian  banana, 


FIG.  22— STUDENTS  AT   PENNSYLVANIA  STATE  COLLEGE 

1.  Setting  cabbage  plants.  2.  Student  vegetable  gardens.  Dairy  barn  in  rear. 
Each  student  does  his  quota  of  work  in  the  field.  From  125  to  150  plan  and, 
tend,  their  gardens  each  spring  semester. 


GERMINATION 


moonflower,  canna  and  wild  cucumber  is  often  done.  The 
object  is  to  let  water  in  to  the  cotyledons.  Lotus  seeds 
not  kept  in  water  from  time  of  ripening  have  also  to  be 
treated  thus ;  but  if  kept  immersed  as  in  nature,  they  will 
sprout  readily  under  favorable  conditions. 

49.  Stratification  is  a  modification  of  nature's  method 
of  handling  hard-shelled  seeds.  In  cold  climates  the 
seeds  are  broken  open  by  frost;  in  warm  ones  by  the 
moisture  usually  abundant  during  the  so-called  winter 


FIG.   23— DIBBLES,   THEIR   USE   AND    ABUSE 


a,  flat-bladed,  wide  style;  b,  homemade  "punch"  dibbles;  c,  pot-plunging 
dibble;  d,  root-graft  planting  dibble;  e,  trowel  style;  f,  dibble  made 
from  spade  handle.  A,  right  way  to  use  dibble,  when  pressing  soil  from  bottom 
of  hole  to  top.  B,  wrong  way — pressing  soil  from  top  and  leaving  air  space 
around  roots. 

or  rainy  season.  Stratification  consists  in  fully  exposing 
the  seeds  to  the  action  of  the  weather.  The  common 
practice  is  to  place  the  seeds  in  shallow  boxes  in  thin 
layers  alternated  with  layers  of  sand  or  sifted  soil.  These 
boxes,  covered  with  galvanized  hardware  cloth  (one-half 
inch  mesh)  to  keep  out  squirrels,  mice  and  other  crea- 
tures, are  then  placed  flat  on  the  ground  out  of  doors  so 
they  will  be  moistened  by  rain  and  snow  and  will  freeze 
and  thaw  as  frequently  as  possible.  The  same  method 


3Q  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

is  practiced  in  warm  climates  where  moisture  in  effect 
takes  the  place  of  frost. 

This  process  of  stratification  depends  for  its  utility 
upon  the  osmotic  passage  of  water  into  the  seeds  which 
are  thereby  softened  so  the  embryo  can  easily  emerge. 
In  cold  climates  frost  splits  hard-shelled  seeds,  which  in 
nature  are  kept  moist  by  the  pulp 
around  them  (peach,  walnut)  or  by 
fallen  leaves  which  cover  them  (hickory, 
chestnut).  Many  hard-shelled  seeds 
have  a  seam  through  which  water  en- 
ters. Perhaps  the  majority  of  such 
PLANT 'PROTECTOR  seeds,  if  placed  in  the  soil  and  kept 
there  through  the  winter,  would  be  suf- 
ficiently soft  by  spring,  even  without  frost  action,  to  ger- 
minate readily. 

50.  Stratification  to  maintain  moisture  in  seeds  (apple, 
cherry)  is  often  practiced  even  in  cold  climates.     If  such 
seeds  were  allowed  to  dry  out  they  would  be  useless. 
Hence,  as  soon  as  gathered  they  are  stratified,  often  12 
to  18  inches  deep,  so  they  will  not  sprout  but  will  keep 
moist  until  the  autumn,  when  they  are  dug  up  and  strat- 
ified in  the  usual  way.     (Compare  54.) 

51.  Nurserymen's  stratification  method. — Nurserymen 
often  stratify  peach  and  plum  seeds  in  shallow,  bowl-like 
pits  or  in  trenches  which  hold  many  bushels.These  are 
covered  with  sand  and  protected  as  already  described  till 
spring.     The  seeds  are  then  sown  after  the  sprout  has 
made  a  little  growth.     This  method  is  better  than  sowing 
the  seeds  in  the  nursery  rows  during  the  fall,  because  the 
seeds  can  be  better  protected  from  animals  and  also  be- 
cause soil  prepared  in  spring  is  iess  likely  to  bake  than 
that  prepared  in  the  fall. 

52.  When  to  plant  stratified  seeds. — Stratified  seeds 
should  always  be  planted  early  in  spring  before  germina- 
tion starts,  because  many  species  sprout  while  the  ground 
is  still  cold  (pear,  beech,  oak,  apple).     If  sprouting  starts 


GERMINATION  3! 

before  sowing,  the  percentage  of  loss  will  be  high.  Hence 
the  seed  bed  should  be  prepared  the  previous  fall  so  as 
to  lose  no  time  in  spring.  Peach  and  plum  seeds  do  not 
suffer  as  much  as  do  apple  and  pear  seeds.  Should  it 
ever  be  necessary  to  sow  the  seeds,  especially  of  small 
kinds,  such  as  apple,  strawberry,  raspberry,  while  the  soil 
is  wet  and  cold,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  open  furrows  and 
cover  the  seeds  with  well-decayed,  fibrous  compost,  saw- 
dust or  similar  material,  so  as  to  prevent  baking.  A 
good  mixture  for  this  purpose  is  rotted  sod,  sharp  sand 
and  cow  manure  which  has  been  rotted  a  year  or  more 
and  turned  over  twice  or  oftener  to  secure  uniformity. 

53.  Necessity  of  freezing. — Whether  freezing  is  neces- 
sary to  cold  climate  seed  germination  is  not  decided.  It 
does  not,  however,  injure  the  seed  germs  but  often  helps 
in  removing  natural  obstructions  such  as  hard  shells. 
Hence,  it  is  preferred  to  cracking  by  hand,  necessarily  a 
slow  and  risky  process. 


FIG.    25— VIEW    IN    FLORIDA    NURSERY 
Shifting    palms,    a    very    important    process    in    plant    growing. 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


54.  Soaking  of  seed  is  often  employed  as  a  substitute 
for  stratification,  the  dry  seed  (locust,  apple)  being  cov- 
ered with  water  from  half  a  day  to  two  or  three  days 
before  sowing.  This  is  of  special  use  in  cases  where  the 
seeds  have  become  unusually  dry.  Many  nurseries  now 
store  their  peach  pits  dry  from  harvest  time  through 
the  winter  until  within  two  weeks  of  planting  time,  when 
the  seeds  are  placed  in  barrels  of  water.  Since  imported 


FIG.   26— SEED   STUDY    CARDS 

In  each  circle  punched  in  cardboard  seeds  are  placed;  at  left,  corn  oi 
various  kinds;  at  right,  clovers.  The  cards  are  then  covered  with  glass  and  fas- 
tened together  with  adhesive  tape  or  passepartout. 

apple  seeds  do  not  reach  the  United  States  before  mid- 
winter, they  are  generally  soaked  two  or  three  days,  and 
then  placed  in  stout  cotton  bags  between  cakes  of  ice 
and  kept  thus  until  planting  time  arrives.  Due  to  the 
impracticability  and  uncertainty  of  the  latter  process, 
many  nurserymen  in  this  country  prefer  to  buy  dormant 
apple,  cherry  and  other  seedling  trees  from  abroad 
(159).  These .  are  planted  in  nursery  rows  and  late' 
budded  to  the  desired  varieties. 


GERM  IX  AT  ION  33 

55.  Soaking  of  farm  and  garden  seeds    (peas,  beans, 
celery,  corn)  is  common,  but  good  results  are  less  com- 
mon than  is  popularly  supposed,  for  the  soil  should  be 
decidedly  moist  and  the  soaking  discontinued  as  soon  as 
the  seeds  have  swelled.     When  kept  in  water  longer,  and 
when  placed  in  soil  too  wet,  decay  is  almost  sure  to  occur; 
and  if  placed  in  soil  that  is  too  dry  they  may  dry  out  and 
fail  to  grow  in  consequence.     With  strong  seeds  sown 
out  of  doors  in  cold  or  unfavorable  soil  half  a  day  to  a 
day  may  shorten  the  time  the  seeds  would  be  under  such 
conditions  and  thus  be  a  help. 

56.  Soaking  beet  seed  experimentally  shortened  the  time  of  ger- 
mination ;  soaked  seed  germinated  in  four,  live  and  six  days  after 
sowing,  while  dry  seed  required  two  weeks.     Soaking  the  seed  was 
dene  for  12  to  14  days  at  a  temperature  of  43  to  48  in  35  to  40  pounds 
water  to  40  pounds  seed.     All  seeds  must  be  equally  dampened  but 
not  wet  and  must  be  frequently  stirred. 

57.  Scalding  is  often  done  to  very  dry  and  hard-shelled 
seeds  which  are  little,  if  at  all,  affected  by  cold  water  or 
by  freezing.     For  instance,  the  seeds  of  the   Kentucky 
coffee  tree  are  covered  with  boiling  water,  which  cools 
vapidly   enough    to   prevent    injury.      The    seeds   of   the 
nearly  related  honey  locust  are  usually  soaked  in  very 
warm  water  for  two  or  three  days  before  planting.     In 
nature   only   a   small  proportion   of  these   seeds   sprout. 
The  reason  that  even  these  sprout  is  probably  that  the 
seed  coats  are  softened  by  the  fermentation  of  the  pulp 
around  them  in  the  seed  pod.     The  acid  treatment,  prob- 
ably, will  give  quicker  and  better  results  (Fig.  21). 

Scalding  does  not  mean  boiling;  merely  pouring  boil- 
ing water  over  the  seeds  and  letting  it  cool  gradually. 
Such  seeds,  even  in  nature,  mostly  fail  to  germinate 
unless  some  such  action  as  fermentation  occurs. 

58.  Hot  water  used  by  Wernicke,  a  German  investigator,  in  ger- 
mination experiments  with  Acacia  molisshna  and  Lathyrus  gave  60 
per  cent  when  soaked  six  hours  at  122  degrees,  72  per  cent  when 
soaked  three  hours  at  167  degrees  and  92  per  cent  when  heated  from 
204  to  212  degrees  for  an  hour.     Untreated  seed  handled  in  flower 
pots  of  sand  the  same  as  the  treated  seed  gave  50  per  cent. 


34 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


59.  Vitality  of  seeds. — Most  seeds  contain  more  or  less 
specimens  that  will  not  germinate  at  all.  They  are  not 
viable ;  in  other  words,  they  are  dead  even  though  freshly 
gathered  and  properly  handled.  Among  viable  seeds 
vitality  varies  greatly,  but  unless  the  germs  be  vigorous 
they  will  not  sprout  well  nor  produce  vigorous  plants. 
Hence  the  importance  of  buying  the  best.  Since  the 
price  paid  for  good  seed  is  very  little  compared  with  the 
value  of  the  crop,  the  best  farmers  never  haggle  over  the 
"high  prices"  of  seeds  sold  by  reputable  seedsmen  (77). 


FIG.  27— NELUMB1UM   (LOTUS)    PROPAGATION 
1.   Seedlings    in    pots   kept    very   wet.      2.    Outdoor  bed    in   pond. 


it    water    plants    must    be    kept    moist    from    the    time    they    ripen    until 


Seeds    of 
hey 


GERMINATION  35 

For  instance,  the  Long  Island  cauliflower  growers  never  pay  less 
than  75  cents  an  ounce  for  seed,  all  of  which  is  purchased  in  large 
lots  on  contract  by  their  co-operative  association.  The  lowest  retail 
price  quoted  by  a  well-known  seed  house  is  60  cents  an  ounce  for  an 
old  standard  variety ;  the  highest,  $7.00,  but  this  is  for  a  new  variety. 

Among  farm  crops  that  suffer  because  of  low  vitality 
seeds  are  clover,  blue  grass,  corn  and  wheat;  among 
garden  crops,  cabbage,  cauliflower,  onion,  turnip,  parsnip, 
lima  bean,  celery.  Hence  their  high  price. 

60.  Seed  in  the  tropics.— Many  kinds  of  seed  deteriorate  rapidly 
in  tropical  climates;  instances  of  90  per  cent  germination  immedi- 
ately on  gathering  with  only  50  per  cent  a  month  later  and  zero  at 
three  months.     Lettuce  is  said  to  lose  vitality  in  a  few  weeks. 

61.  The     principal     influences  that  affect  vitality  of 
seed  are  kind  of  seed,  climate,  maturity,  age  and  method 
of  storage. 

62.  Age  of  trees  seems  to  influence  seed  vitality;  fir  trees  about 
150  years   produced  highest  vitality  seed  by  French   experimental 
tests. 

Powdered  charcoal  is  recommended  as  packing  for  such  seeds  as 
lose  their  vitality  when  shipped  long  distances. 

63.  Acorn  and  nut  vitality. — Many  nuts  and  acorns  quickly  lose 
their  vitality  when  dried;  therefore,  they  should  be  either  planted 
soon  after  maturing  or  stratified  in  moist  but  not  wet  sand,  soil  or 
moss  and  kept  in  a  cool  place.     Dr.  T.  H.  Hoskins  reports  perfect 
germination  of  butternuts  stored  in  a  loft  four  or  five  years ! 

The  longevity  of  seeds  is  well  illustrated  by  the  following  in- 
stance. At  Columbia,  Mo.,  white  clover  seed  which  had  been  buried 
about  six  feet  deep  under  a  race  track  for  35  years,  was  found,  upon 
being  uncovered,  to  germinate  freely. 


CHAPTER  III 
GERMINATION  AND  LONGEVITY  OF  SEEDS 

64.  Size  of  seed  generally  produces  proportionate  seed- 
lings, not  only  as  to  species  but  as  to  specimen.  A  mere 
glance  at  a  lima  bean  would  suggest  that  the  seedling 
would  be  many  times  larger  than  a  begonia  seedling. 
The  same  generally  holds  true  of  the  larger,  heavier 
specimens  as  compared  with  the  smaller,  lighter  ones  of 
the  same  species. 

Galloway  found  that  large  radish  seed  germinates  more  quickly 
and  certainly,  and  produces  marketable  plants  sooner  and  more  uni- 
formly than  small  seed,  while  small  seed  gives  proportionately  larger 
plants  than  does  large  seed,  though  not  to  an  extent  believed  to  be 
advantageous  in  practice.  Another  investigator  found  that  pea 
plants  from  large  seed  bloomed  four  days  earlier  than  those  from 
small,  and  produced  marketable  peas  four  days  earlier  and  the  main 
crop  five  to  six  days  earlier.  Beans  acted  similarly. 

65.  Large  seed  in  plant  production.— M.  B.  Cummings  of  Vermont 
reports  a  series  of   experiments  with   seeds  of   sweet  peas,   sweet 
pumpkins,  Hubbard  squash,  lettuce,  beans,  parsley,  radishes,  spinach, 
garden  peas  and  other  plants  to  determine  the  relative  value  of  large 
and  small  seeds  on  plant  production.     The  experiments,  as  a  whole, 
show  a  distinct  advantage  in  using  large  and  heavy  seed.     Sweet 
peas  gave  earlier  bloom,  a  larger  number  of  blossoms,  and  a  larger 
number  of  blossoms  of  good  quality.     The  plants  were  also  heavier 
and  more  prolific  and  thrifty.     Small  squash  and  pumpkin  seed  gave 
a  larger  number  and  greater  total  weight  of  fruit,  but  were  markedly 
inferior  as  to  number  and  weight  of  ripe  fruit.     Large  lettuce  seed 
produced  larger  seedlings,  an  increased  weight  of  edibly  matured 
plants  with  better  heading  capability,  earliness  and  uniformity.     Of 
the  crops  tested,  garden  peas  alone  showed  little  or  no  difference 
when  the  seed  was  harvested  as  green  peas.   There  was  a  slight 
gain   for  plants  from  large  seed  allowed  to   mature.     Large  bean 
seed  gave  an  earlier  product,  but  was  slower  in  germinating. 

66.  Delayed  germination. — When  conditions  are  nor- 
mal, many  seeds  will  sprout  in  less  than  three  days  (mus- 
tard family)  ;  others  seem  to  require  three  or  more  weeks 
(parsley  family)  ;    still   others  do  not  germinate  for  a 


GERMINATION   AND   I.O.NV.KVITY  OF  SEEDS 


37 


year  or  more  (holly,  thorn,  mountain  ash).  These  dif- 
ferences may  be  due  to  the  form  of  the  stored  food,  the 
character  of  the  seed  coats,  the  nature  of  the  plant,  the 
dryness  of  the  seeds  or  of  the  soil,  etc.  For  instance, 
ginseng  seeds,  if  sown  as  soon  as  ripe,  should  sprout  the 
following  spring;  if  dry  they  may  take  18  months  or 


FIG.    28— VEGETABLE    PLANT    BEDS 

1.     Celery    for    transplanting.      2.  Seedling    lettuce    plants.      The    plants 
kept   free   from   weeds   and  are   thinned   and   transplanted   as  may   be   needed. 


38  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

more.     Clover  and  alfalfa  "hard  seeds"  are  slow  unless 
treated  with  sulphuric  acid  as  already  indicated   (47). 

67.  Delayed  germination,  according  to  W.  Crocker,  an  English 
investigator,  is  due  to  the  structure  of  the  seed  coats  rather  than  to 
that  of  the  embryos,  as  popularly  believed.  Those  coats  which  ex- 
clude water  are  slower  than  those  which  exclude  oxygen.  In  nature, 
"growth  of  delayed  seeds  results  from  decay  of  the  seed  coats  by 
longer  or  shorter  exposure  to  germinative  conditions. 

In  garden  practice,  advantage  is  often  taken  of  difference  in  time 
of  sprouting  by  sowing  quick-germinating  and  slow-sprouting  seeds 
in  the  same  rows,  the  former  to  act  as  markers  of  the  positions  of 
the  rows  so  cultivation  may  start  at  the  earliest  possible  moment. 
The  markers  must  always  be  sown  very  thinly.  Radish  is  a  favorite 
for  this  purpose,  because  it  sprouts  and  matures  early. 


FIG.  29— CALIFORNIA   PRIVET  IN  OHIO   NURSERY 
This   ornamental   is  one  of  the   leading   hedge    plants   today. 

68.  Re-germination  of  seeds. — Popular  opinion  is  wrong 
in  the  belief  that  seeds  once  dried  after  germination  are 
useless  for  sowing  or  are  necessarily  killed.  Certainly 
they  are  not  quite  as  good,  but  they  may  sprout  again 
fully  as  well  as  the  first  time  and  produce  just  as  good 
plants.  Nowoczek  made  re-germination  tests  under  tem- 
peratures varying  between  60  and  68  degrees  with  results 


GERMINATION  AND  LONGEVITY  OF  SEEDS  39 

that  show  that  corn,  rape,  flax,  peas,  buckwheat,  onion, 
radish  and  some  other  seeds  will  re-germinate  several 
times.  Therefore,  should  drouth  follow  sprouting,  it  will 
not  necessarily  indicate  that  the  sprouted  but  dried  seeds 
of  these  crops  will  fail  to  germinate  again  under  favor- 
able conditions. 


RE-GERMINATION  TESTS 


Kind  of  Seed 

Number  of  Times  and   Percentage  of  Germination 

1st  time 

2d 

3d 

4th 

5th 

6th 

7th 

Wheat  
Barley  
Oats 

70% 
85 
90 

%* 

83 

g* 

77 

31% 
40 
62 

g* 

40 

10% 

27 

i« 

8 

98 

96 

66 

14 

3 

Rape 

95 

55 

27 

17 

1 



_ 

Flax 

88 

78 

30 

9 



— 

Red  Clover  

85 

41 

10 

3 

— 



- 

Peas  

87 

38 

3 

= 

~ 

~ 

FIG.  30— WRINKLES  IN  GROWING  PLANTS  IN  FLATS 

1.     Flat  with  paper  pot  fillers  and  galvanized  steel  bottom   (shown  above).  The 
plants   are   readv   *««•  setting  without   loss  of  roots.     2.   Plants   taken   from   flat. 


CHAPTER  IV 
SEED  TESTING 

69.  Specialists  divide  seeds  into  two  classes — those 
whose  botanical  purity  can  be  determined  from  the  speci- 
mens themselves  and  those  which  can  be  judged  only  by 

the    plants    they    produce. 

Most  farm  seeds  belong  to 
the  first  class ;  most  garden 
41^  seeds  to  the  second.  Hence, 

the  former  are  the  more 
easily  tested  and  their  val- 
ue for  sowing  more  accu- 
rately judged  beforehand. 
With  the  latter  the  point  of 
most  importance  is  true- 
ness  to  name  and  strain. 
^^^^^^t  Of  course  they  must  ger- 
minate, but  gardeners  would 
rather  have  low  vitality 
seed  of  good  stock  than 
high  vitality  seed  of  poor 
stock :  for  though  they 
might  get  only  25  per  cent 
of  plants  from  a  sowing, 
">"'  these  would  be  of  the  type 
they  desire ;  but  even  90 
per  cent  in  the  other  case 
might  mean  no  sale  for  the 
Most  good  seedsmen,  therefore,  test  their  stock. 


FIG.  31— TWO  STYLES  OF  TROWELS 

Left,    properly    cared     for;     right,     im- 
properly 


product. 


The  importance  of  this  was  recently  told  the  writer  by  a  prom- 
inent seedsman  whose  firm  took  a  contract  to  furnish  a  canning  fac- 
tory with  a  large  quantity  of  best  seed.  The  seed  firm  was  obliged 
to  buy  the  seed  to  fill  the  order.  No  test  was.  therefore,  possible 
prior  to  filling  the  contract.  The  seed  proved  to  be  so  inferior  that 
the  seed  firm  promptly  met  the  loss  of  $1,200  when  the  canning 
company  made  complaint. 


SEED    TESTING  4! 

70.  The  value  of  "trial  grounds"  to  seedsmen  and  to  the 
public  cannot  be  overestimated.     The  firm's  stocks  and 
those  of  competitors  are  grown  side  by  side,  and  as  the 
season  advances,  critical  observations  are  made,  with  the 
result  that  inferior  stock  is  discovered  and  disposed  of  in 
ways  that  will  do  no  harm. 

71.  The  importance  of  seed  analysis  is  threefold:  a, 
seeds  are  the  most  variable  materials   farmers  have  to 
buy ;  b,  weight  for  weight  they  are  the  most  costly ;  c, 
the  success  or  failure  of  the  immediate  crops  and  often  of 
several  generations  of  crops  depends  largely  or  perhaps 
even  wholly  upon  the  character  of  the  seed.    Hence  seed 
testing  is  almost  essential   to  the  modern  farmer  who 
must  leave  no  point  to  chance. 

Borlase  furnishes  an  example  in  the  following  table 
and  comment : 

VALUE  OF  SEED  ANALYSIS  ILLUSTRATED 


,lg 

& 
g 

m 

"^        *   CO 

•>U 

ssjp 

11 

III 

6"o  « 

1 

2 

*25 
*20 

97.1 
78.6 

1.7 
13.4 

1.2 
8.0 

213,620 
172,920 

8,906 
8,640 

3 

*18 

60.3 

28.1 

11.6 

132,660 

7,3  7o 

"Price   approximate,   hence   "nurrfber  good   seed   for   a  cent"    also   approximate. 


FIG.    32— EFFECTIVE    MEANS    OF    HASTENING    GERMINATION 
Seedlings    under   inverted    flower   pot.     2.  Seedlings   under   pane   of  glass. 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


If  only  10,000,000  seeds  are  sown  to  the  acre,  Sample  1  would 
provide  over  20  weed  seeds  to  the  square  yard,  while  Sample  No.  3 
would  distribute  240.  But  notice  also  the  number  of  good  seeds  ob- 
tained for  a  cent  and  figure  out  how  much  is  being  paid  for  inferior 
and  weed  seeds  in  each  case;  then  judge  the  help  that  pure  seed 
will  be  in  preventing  weed  growth  on  the  farm. 

The  Canadian  Department  of  Agriculture  found  that  "red 
clover"  seed  sold  in  Ontario  contained  6,000  to  15,000  weed  seeds 
to  the  pound  and  in  alsike  as  high  as  23,550  to  49,830. 

An    American    sample   of    alfalfa   gave    6.8    per   cent    or    about 

32,500  seeds  in  a  pound  of 
weed  seeds,  including  5.490  of 
dodder  (see  C,  72),  one  of 
the  worst  of  weeds,  because, 
being  parasitic,  it  kills  all  the 
alfalfa  it  reaches. 

In  certain  parts  of  the 
United  States,  it  is  stated, 
clover  seed  tailings  are  some- 
times used  on  the  farm,  the 
clean  seed  being  sold.  Such 
tailings  have  been  found  to 
contain  over  272,000  weed 
seeds  to  the  pound.  Such 
seed  will  soon  make  any 
farm  a  weed  paradise. 

72.  Losses  due  to  low- 
grade  seeds  are  evident 
from  the  examples  cited. 
These  may  be  grouped 
under  the  following 
heads :  A.  Direct  loss 
on  the  purchase.  B. 
Loss  of  crop  due  to  in- 
sufficient good  seed 
sown  to  the  acre,  with 
possible  total  loss  in 
worst  cases.  C.  Loss 
due  to  direct  destruction 
of  crop  because  of  intro- 
duced parasites  such  as 
dojdder  and  broom  rape. 

FIG.  33-RH.ZOMES  D      Neces  CQst  of  £ 

iJiSrigSh"owi2ngRh0LdbarrbhizZezome.Ieft  *nd  tra    cleaning    the    seed 


SEED   TESTING 


crop,  perhaps  even  for  several 
years,  due  to  the  introduction 
of  weeds.  E.  Damage  caused 
by  introduction  of  new  weeds, 
which  may  spread  over  the 
farm  or  the  district.  F.  Loss 
due  to  insect  and  fungous  pests 
introduced  with  the  seed. 

A.  Direct  loss  following  the  pur- 
chase   of    low-grade    seeds    may    be 
due  to  one  or  both  of  two  factors  : 
(1)    reduced    quantity   of    seed   true 
to  name,  and   (2)   poor  germinating 
capacity  of  the  seeds.     Usually  low 
quality  seeds  are  poor  in  both  ways. 

B.  When  truly  high-class  samples 
of  seed  are  bought,  less  seed  is  need- 
ed for  a  given  area  than  when  low- 
grade    samples    are    used.      When    a 
low-grade  sample  is  sown  unwitting- 
ly, the  result  may  be  a  poor  stand, 
which   may  be   overcome  by   strong 
growing  weeds,  many  of  which  may 
have  been  introduced  with  the  seed. 
Sometimes  the  whole  field  may  have 
to    be    plowed      and     re-sown,    thus 
causing  loss   of   cultivation,   one   lot 
of  seed  and  much  time,  the  last,  per- 
haps, most  serious,  except  the  equiv- 
alent loss  of  money. 

C.  The  loss  due  to  parasites  may 
be  calculated  from  the  statement  by 
M.  Marre  that  a  single  dodder  stem 
may   spread    so   rapidly      in      three 
months   as  to   kill  clover  or  alfalfa 
on  an  area  of  about  30  square  yards  ! 
By    experiment,      dodder      seed    has 
been  found  to  germinate  when  only 
half  ripe  !     The  seeds  of  the  dodder 
and  broom  rape  may  lie  dormant  in 
the  soil  for  several  years. 

D.  Introduced    weeds    may    make 
necessary   extra    cultivation    as    well 
as  extra  cleaning  of  the  seed  crop. 

E.  See  comment  above  (F). 


grade 


are   undesirable   at   any   soil.    3.  Firming  in  pot 


44 


PLANT     PROPAGATION 


FIG.  35— SMALL  SCALE  SEED  TESTING 


price.    Low    price    is    almost    surely     an    index   of    low  quality. 
73.  Questions  to  consider  in  testing  seed — i.  Is  the  seed  to  be 
purchased  truly  named?    If  not,  it  should  be  refused.     Seed  pur- 
porting   to    be    Tri folium    re- 
pens  (white  clover)  but  really 
T.  parviflorum      (a  worthless 
clover   species)    should  be  re- 
fused   and   the   seller   perhaps 
sued   for    fraud.     Species   can 
usually   be    identified,   but   va- 
rieties must  generally  be  grown  before  they  can. 

2.  Is  the  seed  fresh  or  old?     Old  seeds  may  be  treated  to  make 
them  look  fresh,  but  that  won't  put  life  in  them.     "When  mixed  with 
new  seed  they  reduce  the    value 

because  they  are  probably  dead. 
This  trick  of  the  trade  is  far 
less  practiced  than  formerly.  It 
constitutes  a  fraud  and  is  pun- 
ishable by  law.  Mere  number  of 
years  does  not  necessarily  make 
seed  "old."  Some  seeds  (see 
table  p.  49)  retain  vitality  ten  or 
more  years.  They  properly  de- 
serve still  to  be  called  "fresh" 
if  they  germinate  well.  Repu- 
table seedsmen,  after  testing 
their  "returned"  seeds  offer  the 
good  samples  for  sale  again. 
This  is  perfectly  legitimate.  F,G.  36-ELABORATE  PROPAGATING 

3.  Has   a   cheaper   seed  been  OVEN 

mixed  with  the  desired  kind?  A,  galvanized  iron  earth  tray;  a, 
VellOW  trefoil  seed  superficially  plants  in  pots;  B,  water  tank  filled  by 
resembles,  and  is  sometimes  used  funnel,  F;  C,  chamber  heated  by  lamp, 

to  adulterate,     red     and  alsike  D;  b>  b'  air  intakes;  E>  removable  top. 

Gias«  Glass  clovers   and  alfalfa.      Cock's-foot 

grass  seed  may  be  adulterated 
with  meadow  fescue  or  perennial 
rye  grass  and  charlock  seed,  per- 
haps baked  to  kill  it  so  its  seed- 
lings will  not  betray  the  fraud, 
may  be  mixed  with  cabbage,  rape 
and  similar  seeds. 

4.  How  pure  is  the  sample? 
The  percentage  of  seeds  true  to 
name  is  of  great  importance.  The 
impurities  should  be  identified — 


Sand 


FIG.    37— SIMPLE     PROPAGATING  weeds  and  their  species,  seeds  of 

OVEN  other  cultivated  plants,  chaff,  bits 

With    dimensions    at   2    feet    high    the  of    stem,   leaf    and   pods,    dirt,    etc. 

glass  would  be  10x12  inches.  Very  bad   weed  seeds   should  be 


SEED   TESTING      .  45 

named.  "Rubbish"  impurities  are  of  small  consequence  compared 
to  weed  seeds,  especially  if  bad;  for  instance,  a  sample  of  clover 
99  per  cent  pure  and  with  99  per  cent  germination,  would  be  unsatis- 
factory if  it  contained  dodder. 

5.  What  does  the  seed  weigh?     Generally  heavy  seeds  within  the 
limits  of  the  species  are  best. 

6.  Are  the  seeds  dry?     Well-dried  seeds  keep  best 'and  give  best 
results. 

7.  WThere  did  the  seeds  originate?     Seeds  from  some  countries  or 
even  localities  may  be  better  or  poorer  than  from  others. 

8.  What    percentage    will    germinate?       And    at    what    rate    or 
"strength"? 

9.  What  percentage  are  "hard"  seeds?     Perhaps  this  will  not  be 
considered  as  serious  a  question  as  formerly  when  the  sulphuric 
acid  method  (47)  comes  into  more  general  use. 


FIG.    38— SAND   BOX   SEED   GERMINATOR 
The  wires  divide  the  surface  into  squares  in  which  the  seeds  are  placed. 

74.  Simple  conveniences  in  seed  testing  include  a 
pocket  lens  to  examine  small  seeds ;  sheets  of  stout  white 
paper  or  cardboard  on  which  to  spread  seeds  for  examina- 
tion ;  a  spatula-like  piece  of  hardwood,  bone  or  celluloid 
to  separate  the  seeds ;  tweezers  to  pick  out  small  seeds ; 
a  small  scales  for  weighing  phials  of  truly  named  culti- 
vated plant  and  weed  seeds  with  which  to  compare  seeds 
to  be  examined ;  gummed  labels  for  numbering  or  nam- 
ing samples ;  blotting  paper,  strips  of  flannel,  and  clean 
sifted  sand  for  germination  tests. 

A  small  germinator  may  be  made  by  wetting  sand  in  a 


46 


PLANT     PROPAGATION 


soup  plate,  placing  blotting  paper  or  flannel  on  this,  then 
the  seeds  to  be  tested  next,  a  second  sheet  of  blotting 
paper  and  finally  an  inverted  soup  plate  to  check  evapora- 
tion (Fig.  35).  For  small  seeds.  Petri  dishes  used  by 
bacteriologists  are  more  convenient  than  soup  plates,  be- 
cause they  take  up  less  space.  A  warm  room  will  supply 
the  needed  heat.  Seed  pans  and  flower  pots  placed  in 
trays  of  water  or  otherwise  kept  damp  are  useful  in  a 


FIG.    39— LABELS    AND    METHODS    OF    MARKING 

A,  C,  I,  various  sizes  of  florists'  labels.  B,  old  label  rotted  off  at  bottom  without 
losing  name.  D,  zinc  label  with  writing  almost  illegible  after  a  year  or  more  of  use. 
E,  G,  H,  nurserymen's  labels  for  fastening  to  trees  etc.  F,  old  label  showing 
wrong  way  to  write  name,  thus  losing  the  important  part,  the  first  syllable  or  two, 
by  decay.  J,  nurserymen's  label  printed  on  both  sides  for  quickness  in  handling. 

larger  way.  For  more  extensive  work,  as  in  schools  and 
colleges,  germinating  ovens  (Figs.  36,  37)  will  be  found 
more  convenient  and  useful. 

75.  Conducting  a  seed  test. — Representative  samples  of 
the  seed  to  be  tested  are  taken  from  the  sacks  or  bins  of 
seed.  These  are  mixed  to  secure  uniformity.  A  small 
sample  of  this  composite  sample  is  weighed,  spread  out 
and  the  good  seed  separated  from  the  bad  and  the  various 


sEt;u  TESTING  47 

impurities,  each  by  itself.  Then  each  lot  is  weighed  and 
the  percentage  of  purity  computed.  From  the  pure  lot 
thus  separated,  100  or  200  seeds  are  selected  and  placed 
in  a  germinator  so  they  do  not  touch  each  other.  In  due 
time  under  favorable  conditions,  sprouting  will  follow 
and  the  percentage  of  germination  may  be  determined. 
To  calculate  the  true  value  of  the  seed,  multiply  the  per- 
centage of  purity  by  the  percentage  of  germination  and 
divide  by  100.  For  instance,  suppose  a  sample  to  be  90 
per  cent  pure  and  have  80  per  cent  germination ; 
90  X  85  -^-  by  100  =  83.3  per  cent.  That  is,  100  pounds 
would  contain  83.3  pounds  of  pure,  germinable  seed  and 
16.7  pounds  of  dead  seeds,  weed  seeds,  dirt,  etc.  "What 
man  in  his  right  senses  would  pay  for  the  latter? 

76.  The  longevity  of  seeds,  the  percentage  of  germina- 
tion and  the  purity  of  the  sample  have  much  to  do  with 
the  resulting  crop.  In  the  table  on  page  49,  the  per- 
centages of  purity  and  germination  (by  Duvel)  are  high 
averages  in  high-grade  seed ;  the  figures  (years)  on 
longevity  are  from  Vilmorin.  As  an  indication  of  the 
importance  of  securing  high-grade  seed  the  following 
instance  speaks  for  itself. 


48 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


SEED   TESTING 


49 


GERMINATION   AND  LONGEVITY  OF  SEEDS 
[Purity  and  Germination  figures  from  Duval;   Longevity  from  Vilraorin.] 


Per  Cent 

Per  ( 

>nt 

Kind  of  Seed 

>, 

•c 

£ 

<4 

'&  0 

J-o 

tc  > 

g| 

<Jj 

Kind  of  Seed 

>> 

1 

Germi- 
nation 

Average 
Longevit 

Alfalfa  

99 

95 

_ 

Grass,  Timothy 

99 

96 

2 

BaHey8  
Beans  
Beet,  Garden 

99 
99 
99 

98 
98 

150* 

3 
3 
6 

Hemp  
Kafir  Corn.... 
Leek 

99 
99 

90 
97 

1 

""      Sugar  
Buckwheat  
Cabbage 

99 
99 
99 

150-175* 
96 
95  1 

6 
2 
5 

Lettuce  
Mustard.... 
Oats.  .  . 

99 
99 
99 

98 
95 
96 

5 
4 
S 

Carrot 

98 

85 

4  or  5 

Okra 

99- 

80 

S  * 

Celery  

98 

85 

8 

Onion  

oo. 

96 

? 

Clover,  Alsike 

98 

95 

Parsley.....  .  .. 

99 

80 

^ 

Crimson  
rt         Red  
Sweet  
White  

98 
98 
98 
96 

97 
95 
90 
90 

3 

Parsnip  
Pea  
Radish  
Rape...'  

98 
99 
99 
99 

85 
98 
97 
96 

2 
3 
5 
5 

Corn,  Field  

99 
99 

99 
94 

2 

Rice  
Rye 

99 
99 

95 
96 

2 

99 

90 

Salsify,  .  .  .  . 

98 

85 

? 

Cowpea  

99 

95 

_ 

Sorghum  

98 

9S 

Cucumber  
Eggplant  
Endive  

99 
99 
99 

i 

85 

.6 
10 

Soy  Bean  
Spinach... 
Sunflower  

99 
99 
99 

95 
90 
90 

2 
5 

Flax 

99 

95 

2 

Sweet  Pea 

99 

90 

— 

Grass    Blue 

95 

85 

Teosinte 

99 

90 

90 

90 

_ 

Tomato  

99 

94 

4 

"        Fescue  Meadow.. 
Sheep's.  .  . 
Millet  
Orchard  
Red  top  
Rye  

98 
96 
99 
95 
96 
98 

90 
85 
90 
90 
90 
90 

2 
2 

Tobacco  
Turnip..  
Velvet  Bean... 
Vetch... 
Wheat  

99 
99 
99 
99 
99 

90 
98 
90 
93 
98 

5 

2 

Beet  "balls"  usually  contain  two  to  six  seeds — the  figures  are  for  100  balls  tested. 

Kale,  cauliflower,  collard,  kohl-rabi,  etc.,  have  same  figures. 

Other  vine  crops — pumpkin,  melon,  squash,  etc. — have  same  figures. 


I 

77.  Does  it  pay  to  test  seed  for  germination?     C.  E. 

Myers  has  furnished  me  the  following  figures  on  tests 
of  crimson  and  sweet  clover  seed  made  prior  to  purchase. 
From  three  and  two  seedsmen  respectively,  he  received 
samples  and  prices. 

GERMINATION  TEST  OF  CRIMSON   AND  SWEET  CLOVER  SEED 


Seed  Sam 

pies 

Price 

Percentage 

Crirns< 

sn  Clover, 

Sample   1  

..   $6 
6  70 

92 
78 

tt 

<c 

3  

.     5 

94 

Sweet 

" 

1  

2...'. 

15 
..    17 

82 
66 

50  PLANT     PROPAGATION 

In  these  two  series  of  tests  it  happened  that  the  low- 
est priced  seed  gave  the  highest  germination  and  the 
most  expensive  the  lowest.  Since  the  amount  of  time 
required  to  make  the  tests  was  scarcely  more  than  an 
hour  and  the  cost  certainly  not  more  than  50  cents  for 
each  series,  it  is  evident  that  a  saving  of  $1  to  $1.70  on 
the  crimson  clover  and  $2  on  the  sweet  clover  was  made 


FIG.     41— STERILIZED     VS     UNSTERIL1ZED     SOIL 

A,    soil    sterilized   by   heating   before   sowing;    B,    unsterilized   soil.      Notice    weed 
growth. 

on  each  bushel  of  seed  bought,  even  without  considering 
the  higher  percentage  of  plants  likely  to  follow  sowing 
these  seeds.  One  interesting  point  in  these  tests  is  that 
the  seedsman  who  quoted  the  lower  price  on  sweet 
clover  also  quoted  .the  highest  on  crimson  clover. 

It  must  not  be  inferred  from  these  instances  that  cheap 
seed  is  always  or  necessarily  the  better  to  buy.  On  the 
contrary  low-priced  seed  is  perhaps  far  more  often  the 
more  expensive  because  of  its  probable  dirtiness  and  low 
percentage  of  germination.  Nothing  but  an  actual  test  can 
determine  this  point. 


SEED    TESTING  5! 

78.  Damping-off  is  a  nurseryman's  and  gardener's  term 
for  the  decay  of  seedlings  and  cuttings,  more  especially 
just  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  conditions 
that  favor  it  are  excess  of  moisture  in  both  soil  and  air, 
higher  temperature  than  necessary  for  normal  plant  de- 
velopment, and  poor  light.  The  weak  plants  that  develop 
under  these  conditions  succumb  to  tiny  fungi  which  live 
upon  decaying  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil,  and  which 


FIG.    42— FRAMES    FOR    STRAW    MAT    MAKING 

These    are   homemade  contrivances.   Nursery   and   greenhouse   supply   houses   make 
mats   by   machine. 

live  for  months  in  spite  of  drouth  or  of  frost.  Should 
damping-off  be  noticed  the  healthy  plants  should  be 
pricked  out  (81)  or  transplanted  in  fresh  soil  to  save 
them  if  possible.  So  rapidly  does  the  trouble  spread  that 
thousands  of  seedlings  or  of  cuttings  may  be  lost  in  a 
single  night.  Perfect  drainage  in  open  soil  with  ample 
watering  and  fresh  air  are  partial  safeguards.  Steam 
sterilization  (Fig.  40)  of  the  sand  for  several  hours  is 
often  done  with  good  results.  Damping-off  frequently 
follows  copious  watering  of  a  bed  which  has  been  very 
dry  longer  than  advisable. 

The  fungi  usually  believed  to  cause  damping-off  are  Phytophthora 
omnii'ora  (Fusarium  sp.),  Pythium  debaryanuui;  but  V.  Peglion,  an 
Italian  investigator,  has  identified  several  others — Botrytes  cinerea, 


52  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

Thielavia  basicola  and  Phoma  beticola.  By  experimenting  with  soil 
infested  with  Pythium  debaryauum,  heating  to  130  to  212  degrees 
and  treating  with  20  to  30  per  cent  solutions  of  formalin  and  various 
quantities  of  carbon  bisulphide,  he  found  that  Camelina,  a  plant 
very  susceptible  to  attacks  of  this  fungus  made  good  growths,  the 
action  of  this  fungus  being  reduced  even  to  nothing. 

79.'  Damping-off  seedlings  in  plant  beds,  according  to  the  Minne- 
sota station,  is  commonly  caused  by  Pythium  debaryanum  or  Rhizoc- 
tonia.  These  attack  a  large  variety  of  plants  as  well  as  live  upon 
dead  organic  matter  in  the  soil.  Very  little  can  be  done  to  check 
the  disease  when  such  conditions  prevail.  Therefore  methods  which 
kill  fungi  are  needed  to  prevent  the  disease.  The  preventive 
methods  must  be  applied  before  sowing  the  seed,  otherwise  the  seed 
will  be  killed  also. 


FIG.    43— WORK    IN    THE    CUTTING    BENCH 

1.     Opening   a   furrow  with    a  wooden   label.     2.  Firming  the   cuttings   in   the 
sand,  side  view.     3.  End  view.  4.  Removing  rooted  cuttings  for  potting. 

Chemical  agents  have  been  tested  as  fungicides  against  damping- 
off,  but  of  these  formalin  alone  has  proved  of  value.  Treatment  of 
the  soil  with  formalin  (one  part  formalin  to  100  of  water  and  lesser 
strengths),  as  frequently  recommended,  does  not  kill  the  fungus. 
Although  it  may  check  the  disease  for  some  time  it  will  allow  damp- 
ing-off  to  develop  later  if  weather  conditions  permit.  The  value  of 
formalin  at  these  strengths,  therefore,  depends  largely  on  the  time 
weather  conditions  favorable  to  damping-off  appear. 


SEED   TESTING  53 

Treating  the  soil  with  1-50  formalin  at  the  rate  of  two  quarts  to 
the  square  foot  of  soil,  will  kill  damping-off  fungi,  and  will  hence 
effectually  prevent  the  malady  under  the  most  favorable  weather 
conditions  for  fungous  growth.  Formalin  soil  treatment  is  also 
somewhat  beneficial  in  stimulating  plant  growth  and  in  killing  some 
weed  seeds.  The  chief  objections  are  the  cost,  the  time  required 
for  it  to  act,  and  for  the  soil  to  dry  out. 

[If  the  fungus  gets  into  the  cutting  or  seedling  bed  it  may  be 
checked  more  or  less  by  withholding  water  and  allowing  the  sun  to 
reach  the  sand  or  soil  of  the  bed.] 

80.  Sterilization  of  the  soil  by  heat  has  proved  most  satisfactory 
from  all  standpoints,  except  that  under  certain  conditions  it  may  be 
more  expensive  than  formalin.     Steam  sterilization  by  the  "inverted 
pan"   method   is   especially    recommended   where   a   steam   traction 
engine  is  available.     [The  temperature  of  the  soil  should  reach  210 
degrees  at  the  bottom  of  the  bed  for  at  least  30  minutes.] 

•  Aside  from  preventing  damping-off  several  beneficial  secondary 
effects  may  follow;  for  instance,  killing  of  weed  seeds  and  insect 
pests,  and  greatly  increased  size  and  vigor  of  plant  growth.  As 
a  cultural  control  growers  should  avoid  infected,  poorly  drained 
soils  and  thick  sowing  of  seed.  The  only  means  of  checking  the 
disease  after  it  has  started  is  to  remove  the  covers  in  order  to 
reduce  the  temperature  and  the  moisture  of  the  soil  and  of  the  air 
immediately  above  the  plants. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  secured  best  re- 
sults in  treating  soil  for  damping-off  of  coniferous  seedlings  by 
drenching  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid  (one  ounce  to  one  gallon) 
several  days  before  seed  sowing  and  a  week  after  the  seedlings 
appeared,  "in  December  there  was  a  fine  stand  of  healthy  seedlings 
on  the  treated  plot  and  the  soil  was  free  from  algae  and  moss,  while 
the  check  plat  was  green  with  algae  and  moss  and  there  were  prac- 
tically no  seedlings  left.  Only  Norway  spruce  seemed  to  suffer. 
For  this  plant  a  weaker  solution  (1  part  to  500)  is  recommended. 

According  to  another  source,  damping-off  may  be  prevented  by 
"treating  the  soil  with  dilute  iron  or  copper  sulphate." 

81.  Pricking  out  (or  off)  is  a  ga/dener's  term  for  trans- 
planting seedlings  while  yet  so  small  they  can  easily  be 
lifted  on  a  stick  scarcely  wider  than  a  toothpick  at  its 
sharpened  end.  A   better  form  consists   of  two  points 
which  form  a  blunt  V.     The  seedlings  are  thus  moved 
from  the  seed  pans  and  placed  in  other  flats  at  greater 
distances  apart,  say  an  inch,  until  better  rooted.     Prick- 
ing out  is  done  also  to  avoid  risk  of  damping-off  (78). 


CHAPTER  V 
POTTING 

82.  Potting,  placing  of  rooted  plants  in  flower  pots. 

83.  Potting  soil  should  be  light  and  friable  so  as  to 
handle  easily,  drain  readily  and  withstand  crusting  and 
baking  after  wetting.     It  should  also  be  fertile  in  pro- 
portion to  the  needs  of  the  plants  to  be  grown  in  it — 
rich  for  some,  poor  for  others.     Also  its  friability  must 
vary;  for  ferns  be  looser  than  for  roses. 


FIG.   44— POTTING  SOIL  MIXED  AND  UNDER  COVER 

This  soil   has  been  passed  through  a  machine   "mixer"   and   is  sifted,   also  by 
machine,  ready  for  use. 

84.  Preparing  an  ideal  soil  for  potting.  The  best  gen- 
eral potting  soil  is  made  as  follows :  In  spring  after 
grass  has  begun  to  grow  well,  remove  sod  from  an  old 
blue  grass  pasture  or  greenhouse  sodding  field  where 
the  soil  itself  is  rich  and  deep.  For  convenience  in  han- 
dling, cut  the  sod  in  strips  a  foot  or  so  wide,  three  inches 
thick  and  as  long  as  can  be  easily  handled  either  in  rec- 
tangles or  in  rolls,  the  latter  perhaps  preferred.  Place  the 
sods  close  together  on  the  ground  in  a  layer,  grass  side 

54 


55 


down,  on  a  well-drained  space  adjacent  to  the  greenhouse. 
Convenient  widths  are  6  to  10  feet.  On  this  layer  place 
two  or  three  inches  of  well-rotted  manure  and  sprinkle 
pulverized  lime  on  it — say,  a  scant  pailful  to  the  square 
rod.  Repeat  alternate  layers  of  sod  and  manure  until  a 
pile  three  to  five  or  six  feet  high  with  sloping  sides  and  of 
any  desired  length  has  been  made.  It  is  an  advantage  to 
make  the  top  concave,  so  it  will  hold  water  when  needed. 

Let  the  pile  stand  thus  for  two  years  or  longer  before 
being  used.     Then  slice  with  a  sharp  spade  vertically 
from  top  to  bottom  and 
mix        thoroughly        by 
throwing  in  a  heap     as 
slicing  proceeds.  At  the 
same   time,   add  enough 
sand  to  be  plainly  visible 
on  the  pile. 

Commercial  green- 
house men  cannot  usual- 
ly afford  so  expensive  a 
soil  as  this  because  of 
the  cost  of  the  turf  and 
the  loam — often  $100  to 
$200  an  acre  for  the 
surface  three  or  four 
inches.  They,  there- 
fore, use  a  rich  gar- 
den loam  with  liberal  quantities  of  compost  and  sand. 
For  houses  where  little  of  the  earth  is  sold  with  the 
plants  the  soil  is  returned  to  the  field  after  being  used 
in  the  greenhouse  and  there  liberally  fertilized  and  made 
to  grow  crops  of  clover,  rye,  buckwheat  and  grass,  each 
crop  plowed  under  to  fill  the  earth  with  vegetable  mat- 
ter for  its  next  journey  to  the  greenhouse.  In  such 
cases  the  soil  is  generally  run  through  a  mixing  machine 
before  it  is  used.  Thus  the  soil  area  actually  becomes 
richer  and  more  friable  from  year  to  year. 


FIG.     45— SIFTING     SOIL 
The  hand  meth 


FOR     POTTING 


if  getting  rid  of  clods  and 
stones. 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


85.  Flower  pots  are  of  two  principal  kinds ;  those 
with  and  those  without  rims.  They  range  in  one-half-inch 
sizes  between  two  and  seven  inches,  and  in  one-inch  sizes  be- 
tween 7  and  12  inches.  Between  two  and  two  and  one- 
half  is  a  two  and  one-fourth-inch  size.  There  are  also  14, 
16,  and  18-inch  sizes,  but  tubs  and  boxes  are  usually  more 
satisfactory  and  less  expensive  in  these  and  larger  ones. 
Sizes  below  16-inch  are  machine  made  in  "standard"  form. 
Straight-sided  pots  are  little  seen  nowadays.  Below  the 
two-inch  size  are  "thumbs"  used  for  tiny  plants. 

Azalea  or  three-fourth  pots  are  most  useful  for  growing 
ferns,  azaleas  and  other  house  plants,  lilies  and  many  other 
bulbs.  They  afford  ample  soil  and  root  room,  are  not 

as  unsightly  as  full-sized 
flower  pots  of  the  same 
width.  Their  "low 
clown"  effect  is  more 
pleasing  to  the  eye  than 
is  that  of  the  tall  pot. 

"Seed  pans"  are  earth- 
enware trays  usually  one 
to  two  inches  deep.  They 
FIG.  4&— GREENHOUSE  SOIL  SIEVES       the    most    largely    used 

For  fine  work  with  seedlings,  ferns,  etc.         for  growing   ferns,    SCed- 

lings      of     small-seeded 
plants,  etc.     For  this  purpose  they  excel  pots. 

The  rimmed  or  "standard"  pots  (Fig.  21),  though 
easier  to  grasp  are  harder  on  the  hands  than  are  those 
without  collars  when  large  numbers  must  be  handled 
in  a  day,  yet  they  are  so  popular  that  the  old  style  col- 
larless  ones  are  almost  a  curiosity  in  many  sections  of 
the  country.  Whichever  style  is  chosen,  it  should  be 
porous,  never  glazed.  When  to  be  first  used,  the  pots 
should  be  dipped  in  water  a  few  minutes  and  the  surface 
water  then  allowed  to  evaporate.  The  pores  of  the  pot- 
tery must  be  filled  with  water  but  the  pots  must  not 
be  wet  when  plants  are  set  in  them 


POTTING 


57 


In  many  greenhouses  old  and  dirty  pots  are  no  longer 
washed,  because  when  expense  and  breakage  incident  to 
washing  is  reckoned,  the  cost  is  found  to  be  too  near  that 
of  new  pots  to  pay. 

86.  The  operation  of  potting  is  capable  of  a  high  degree 
of  skill  and  speed.  It  is  no  unusual  feat  for  a  man  to 


FIG.  47— TOMATO   PLANTS   IN   PAPER  AND  EARTHENWARE  POTS 
The  paper  pots  readily  rot,  so  may  be  left   around  the  plants  when   transplanted. 

pot  5,000  rooted  cuttings  in  10  hours.  The  highest  rec- 
ord which  has  come  to  the  author's  attention  is  11,500 
verbena  cuttings  in  10  hours.  This  was  made  in 
the  greenhouse  of  the  late  Peter  Henderson  of  New  York 
by  "Jim"  Markey,  who  did  only  the  potting,  two  boys 
keeping  him  supplied  with  soil,  pots  and  cuttings  and 
taking  away  the  potted  plants. 

Elimination   of  waste   motion   is   the   secret  of  such 


^8  PLANT     PROPAGATION 

speed.  Everything  is  arranged  conveniently  for  a  right 
handed  man  as  follows :  The  soil  is  piled  on  the  potting 
bench.  At  the  left  are  the  empty  two-inch  pots,  in  front 
are  the  cuttings,  at  the  right  an  empty  flat  for  the  potted 
cuttings.  Both  hands  work  at  once  thus :  1.  The  right 
seizes  a  handful  of  soil,  the  left  an  empty  pot.  2.  The  pot 
placed  in  front  of  the  operator  is  filled  with  part  of  the 
soil  in  the  right  hand  while  the  now  released  left  hand 
seizes  a  cutting.  3.  The  index  finger  of  the  right  hand  is 
thrust  in  the  soil  in  the  center  of  the  pot,  the  left  places 
the  cutting  in  it.  4.  The  right  discharges  some  soil 
around  the  cutting  and  both  hands  seize  the  pot  be- 


FIG.  48— WRONG  AND  RIGHT  WAYS  TO   FILL  POTS 
A,  too   full;  b,  not  full   enough   and   plant   too   deeply  set;   c,   right. 

tween  the  first  and  second  fingers,  the  index  fingers  being 
on  side  of  the  pot  remote  from  the  operator's  body.  This 
holds  the  pot  firmly  while  (5)  the  thumbs,  first  parallel, 
with,  and  then  at  right  angles  to  the  body,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  cutting,  press  the  soil  firmly  and  uniformly. 
Then,  6,  the  right  hand  places  the  filled  pot  with  a  smart 
rap  in  the  flat  and  the  left  hand  seizes  another  empty 
pot.  If  the  motions  are  practiced  slowly  and  carefully 
at  first,  speed  will  soon  develop  as  the  hands  learn  to 
make  no  false  moves.  Just  as  good  work  can  be  done 
speedily  as  slowly! 
87.  Care  needed  in  potting. — Simple  though  potting  is, 


POTTING 


59 


it  must  be  properly  done  to  get  good  results.  Many 
losses  of  potted  plants  are  due  solely  to  carelessness. 
The  potting  soil  must  be  neither  too  dry  nor  too  wet, 
just  the  condition  that  when  squeezed  firmly  in  the  hand 
it  leaves  the  impress  of  the  fingers  and  shows  several  lit- 
tle cracks  in  it,  but  does  not  break  down  (too  dry)  nor 
remain  as  a  gob  of  mud  (too  wet). 

The  plants  must  be  set  at  just  the  right  depth  (Fig. 
48),  otherwise  they  will  fail.  Seedlings  and  cuttings 
must  not  be  placed  in  pots  too  large  for  them.  The 
almost  universal  size  to  start  with  is  two-inch,  though 
many  ferns  and  other  little  plants  are  set  at  first  in 
"thumb"  pots,  a  still  smaller  size.  The  roots  of  cuttings 
must  neither  be  too  large  nor  too  small,  because  in  the 


Fig.  49— SHUTTERS  FOR  COVERING  HOTBEDS  AND  COLD  FRAMES 

Notice    positions    of    the    cleats.      This    arrangement    favors    easy    piling    and    good 
ventilation    for   drying. 

first  case  there  would  be  breakage,  in  the  latter  refusal  to 
grow ;  one-eighth  to  one-fourth  inch  is  about  the  usual 
length  for  speedy  work. 

Always  a  two-inch  pot  should  have  a  vacant  space  one- 
fourth  to  one-third  inch  deep  at  the  top  for  water.  The 
pots,  when  placed  on  the  greenhouse  bench,  must  be  set  level 
so  as  to  avoid  loss  of  water  over  the  edge.  At  first  the  plants 
need  shade.  Lath  shutters  (Fig.  49),  in  general  use, 
are  placed  on  inverted  pots  large  enough  to  raise  them 
above  the  plants.  In  hot,  sunny  weather,  newspaper  or 
cheesecloth  is  used  for  additional  shade  for  three  days 
to  a  week  at  first,  being  placed  early  and  removed  late 
in  the  clay,  but  gradually  shortening  the  time  shaded. 


6o 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


Sand  to  the  depth  of  one-half  to  one  inch  on  the  bench 
aids  greatly  in  the  retention  of  moisture  as  well  as  in 
placing  the  pots  level. 

Repotting  dangers. — It  seems  to  be  a  rule  that  plants  grown  in 
the  open  ground  attain  larger  size  than  those  grown  in  flower  pots; 
also  that  those  grown  in  large  pots  grow  larger  than  those  grown  in 
smaller  and  smaller  ones.  Experiments  have  proved  that  the  greater 
the  number  of  repottings  the  smaller  the  plants  so  treated. 

88.  Tomato  propagation. — In  Maryland,  83  varieties  of  tomatoes 
were  grown  experimentally,  some  in  the  usual  way  of  transplanting, 
some  from  seed  sown  direct  in  4-inch  pots  imbedded  in  earth  and 
the  seedlings  thinned.  There  was  loss  by  damping-off  among  the 


FIG.    50— REMOVING    PLANT    FROM    POT 


A,  placing   the  hcnds;   b,   rapping   pot   on    bench    to 
c,  plant   separated    from   pot. 


sen   ball   of  earth; 


transplanted  plants,  but  none  among  the  pot  grown.  These  latter 
suffered  no  loss -or  check  when  moved  to  the  field;  the  transplanted 
plants  were  slower  to  start  and  to  bloom.  With  72  of  the  83  va- 
rieties the  pot  plants  yielded  more  than  the  others,  and  among  the 
10  greatest  yielders  nine  were  potted.  The  average  yield  on  an 
acre  basis  was  12)4  tons,  against  10^4,  an  increase  more  than  enough 
to  pay  for  the  labor.  The  potted  plants,  as  a  whole,  produced  about 
twice  as  much  fruit  prior  to  August  15  as  the  others — 59  bushels, 
against  30.  [This  is  of  special  interest  from  a  market  standpoint, 
because  of  higher  prices  early  in  the  season.]  Each  of  the  20  best 
earlv  producers  gave  greatest  yield  from  the  potted  plants. 

89.  Transplanting  lettuce  and  other  plants  experimentally  in  Wis- 
consin in  the  greenhouse  seems  to  warrant  the  general  conclusion 
that  transplanting  does  not  promote  earliness  nor  increased  yield. 
Once  transplanting,  as  of  cabbage  plants,  from  seed  bed  to_  field,  or 
"pricking  off"  as  commonly  practiced  in  the  greenhouse,  is  neces- 
sary to  economize  room,  but  repeated  transplanting  of  vegetable 
plants  is  not  advisable. 


POTTING 


61 


90.  "Shifting"  is  the  trade  term  for  transferring  potted 
plants  to  larger-sized  pots.    At  a  glance  the  trained  man 
can  tell  when  shifting  is  needed;  the  novice  may  "knock 
out"  the  plants  to  examine  the  roots.     This  is  done  as 
shown  in  Fig.  50,    the    top    of    the    pot    being    rapped 
smartly  on  the  edge  of  the  bench.     If  the  roots  form  a 
network  around  the  earth,  especially  if  they  are  dark 
colored,  they  must  be  shifted  to  avoid  becoming  "pot- 
bound." 

91.  In  knocking  out  plants  for  shifting,  only  one  rap  is 


FIG.  51— POT  STORAGE  OUT  OF  DOORS 

This  being  placed  adjacent  to  the  cold   frames  and  hotbeds  saves  much  time 
and   labor. 


usually  needed;  more  waste  time.  Plants  should  never 
be  shifted  while  the  soil  in  the  pots  is  either  very  wet 
or  very  dry ;  only  when  dry  enough  to  crumble  beneath 
thumb  and  fingers.  Pot-bound  plants  need  special  at- 
tention (92).  Pots  should  be  free  from  caked  dirt 
and  fairly  clean.  After  removal  from  the  small  pots, 
each  plant  is  "shouldered";  i.  e.,  part  of  the  surface  soil  is 
rubbed  off  so  fresh  soil  may  take  its  place  in  the  larger 
pot  in  which  it  is  to  be  placed. 


O2  PLAMT    PROPAGATION 

Plants,  soil,  pots  and  flat  being  ready,  the  workman 
puts  enough  soil  in  the  bottom  of  the  pot  to  have  the  top 
of  the  ball  of  earth  around  the  plant  on  a  level  with  the 
rim  of  the  pot.  The  plant  being  so  placed  by  the  left 
hand,  the  right  hand  fills  in  soil ;  the  pot  is  then  grasped 
as  in  motion  4  above  (86),  raised  slightly  and  rapped 
twice  on  the  bench,  the  thumbs  pressing  the  soil  as  in 
motion  5,  first  in  one  position  then  in  the  other.  The  im- 
pressed earth  is  then  firmed  in  the  same  way  and  the 
shifted  plant  set  in  the  flat  at  the  right.  Expert  shifters 
with  two  boys  to  keep  them  supplied  with  material  and 
to  remove  shifted  plants  easily  shift  5,000  plants  a  day. 


FIG.   52 — FLAT    FULL    OF    PLANTS    READY    FOR    TRANSPLANTING 

Canned    tomato   boxes    make    three    convenient-sized    flats    each,   when    sawed    apart 
twice    around    the    sides. 

Shifts  should  be  from  small  pots  to  the  next  size 
larger.  Never  skip  a  size  in  the  fall,  though  sometimes 
with  quick-growing  subjects  in  spring  a  size  may  be 
skipped;  that  is,  a  plant  in  a  three-inch  pot  may  be 
placed  in  a  five-inch  size,  or  a  four-inch  in  a  six.  Usually 
a  size  at  a  time  is  best,  particularly  in  commercial  estab- 
lishments, where  the  aim  is  shipping.  When  pots  become 
larger  than  four-inch,  and  even  in  that  size  for  shrubbery 
plants,  drainage  is  necessary.  "Crocks" ;  that  is,  broken 
flower  pots,  are  the  orthodox  things,  A  large  piece  is 
placed  over  the  drainage  hole  in  the  pot  and  smaller 
pieces  above  to  the  depth  of  an  inch  in  five  and  six-inch 
pots  and  twice  as  much  in  larger  sizes.  Pots  larger  than 


POTTING  63 

three  inches  should  be  set  on  gravel,  cinders  or  other  loose 
material  to  insure  drainage. 

92.  Pot-bound  plants,  those  which  have  been  checked 
by  remaining  too  long  in  the  same  pots  and  have  been 
thus  checked  in  growth,  need  special  attention.  Be- 
fore knocking  out,  the  surface  soil  should  be  scraped 
clean  to  remove  "moss"  and  some  of  the  sour  soil.  After 
knocking  out,  the  hard  ball  of  earth  should  be  crushed 
between  the  palms  of  the  hands,  perhaps  broken  by  raps 
of  the  closed  hand.  The  plants  may  then  be  replaced  in 
the  same  pots  with  additional  fresh  soil.  In  most  cases, 
however,  it  is  better  to  stand  the  plants,  pots  and  all,  in 
water,  say  half  an  hour,  and  then  wash  and  work  out  the 
earth  in  water  either  in  a  tub  or  in  a  gentle  stream. 
After  washing,  the  plants  should  be  placed  in  pots  one  or 


FIG.   53— COMMON    LAYERAGE 


to    hasten    root    production. 

two  sizes  smaller  than  those  they  have  been  in.  Shrub- 
bery plants  should  be  pruned  back.  Plenty  of  shade  but 
little  water  is  needed  until  the  roots  "take  hold"  and 
danger  of  wilting  has  passed.  The  appearance  of  new 
growth  is  the  favorable  sign. 

93.  Flat,  a  shallow  box  in  which  seeds  are  started  and 
seedlings  grown  until  large  enough  for  pricking  out 
(81)  or  transplanting,  usually  of  a  size  easy  to  handle 
when  filled  with  two  to  four  inches  of  soil.  It  is  con- 
venient to  have  flats  of  some  standard  size  that  will  fit 
the  bench  or  hotbed  space  without  waste. 


CHAPTER  VI 
PROPAGATION  BY  BUDS— LAYERAGE 

94.  Layerage  is  the  rooting  of  steins  while  still  attached 
to  the  parent  plant.     The  rooted  pieces  are  cut  off  to 
form  new  plants.     Many  species  propagate  themselves 
naturally  by  various  modifications  of  layerage  and  many 
which  cannot  readily  be  propagated  from  cuttings  (black 
raspberry)   easily  do  so  by  means  of  layers.     Layering 
is  one  of  the  easiest  and  most  popular  methods  of  propa- 
gation.   The  parent  plant  supplies  food  to  the  layer  until 
this  is  capable  of  caring  for  itself.     In  outdoor  practice 
the  operation  is  best  performed  in  early  spring. 

Grape,  bitter  sweet,  Virginia  creeper,  honeysuckle  and  other  vines 
when  trailing  on  the  ground  become  imbedded  more  or  less  in  earth 
and  take  root  at  the  nodes.  Blackcap  raspberry  stems  arch  them- 
selves till  their  tips  touch  the  earth,  when  the  terminal  buds  turn 
upward,  and  roots  are  produced  from  the  thickened  ends.  Other 
buds  near  the  tips  send  out  shoots  which  also  take  root. 

95.  Styles  of  layering.    Layering  is  practiced  in  many 


FIG.    54— TRICKS    IN    TRANSPLANTING 

a,  b,  and  e,  dotted  lines  show  parts  of  tops  removed;  c,  and  d,  show  method  of 
handling  "leggy"  plants 


PROPAGATION  BY  BUDS — LAYERAGE  65 

ways,  chief  among  which  are  :  Simple,  compound  or  ser- 
pentine, continuous,  mound  or  stool,  Chinese  or  pot.  4 
96.  Simple  layers  (Fig.  55)  are  made  by  bending  and 
covering  the  branches  with  more  or  less  soil.  In  general, 
a  shallow  and  short  trench  or  a  small  hole  is  made  in  the 
earth  and  the  branch  pegged  or  weighted  down  in  it  prior 
to  being  covered  with  soil  to  the  depth  of  two  or  three 
inches  but  with  6  to  12  inches  of  the  extremity  of  the 
shoot  uncovered  to  draw  sap  and  elaborate  plant  food. 
To  hasten  root  formation  the  stems  are  often  wounded 


FIG.   55— LAYERING    OF   VARIOUS    KINDS 

A,   ordinary   layering;    a,   layering   pegs;    B,   continuous    layer;    C,   serpentine    layer 
(alternate  nodes  pegged   down).     D,   mound   or  stool   layer. 

at  the  points  to  be  covered.  Wounding  may  be  done  by 
scraping  the  bark  or  cutting  through  the  cambium  layer 
on  the  lower  side  of  the  branch  below  the  bud  or  shoot  to 
grow,  or  it  may  be  by  severely  twisting  the  branch  at  this 
point.  Hacking  with  a  knife  near  the  node  is  also  often 
done.  These  woundings  tend  to  form  adventitious  buds 
on  which  root  growth  in  asexual  propagation  depends. 

So  many  species  and  varieties  of  shrubs  may  be  prop- 
agated by  simple  layering  that  it  seems  probable  any 
woody  plant  capable  of  being  bent  to  the  earth  can  be 
thus  propagated.  (Currant,  gooseberry,  golden  bell.) 

Black  raspberry  canes  and  shoots  cannot  be  made  to 
root  well  when  covered  at  more  than  their  tips.  (Fig. 
56.)  When  the  tips  are  about  ready  to  take  root  they 


66 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


should  be  anchored  with  pebbles  or  clods  of  earth  to 
prevent  whipping  about  by  wind.  This  is  especially 
important  where  the  ground  is  hard  and  dry.  Since  this 
method  is  the  only  one  practiced  in  propagating  black 
raspberries,  it  is  sometimes  called  tip  layering.  In  the  fol- 
lowing spring  the  rooted  tips  are  severed  for  planting 
with  about  six  inches  of  the  stems  to  serve  as  handles. 
The  buds  from  which  the  new 
canes  are  to  develop  must  not  be 
set  deeper  than  the  surface  of  the 
soil. 

97.  Compound    or   serpentine 
layers  (Fig.  55)  are  made  by  cov- 
ering the  stems  at  several  points 
alternating  with  other  points  not 
covered.     The  method  is  most 
frequently  used  for  propagating 
vines    and    other    long    supple 
stems.    Management  is  the  same 
as   for   simple   layers. 

98.  Continuous  layers  (Fig.  55) 
are  made  from  plants  which  root 


FIG.    56-BLACK  RASPBERRY   readily  when  the  whole  branch 

White    spot    near    center    is    the     CXCCpt     the     tip     IS     buried     with 

three   or   four   inches   of  earth. 

Since  the  buds  on  most  plants  will  not  develop  into  shoots 
if  buried,  only  a  few  plants  are  adapted  to  this  form  of 
layering,  among  them  red  osier,  willow,  high  bush  cran- 
berry and  snowball. 

99.  Modified  continuous  layering,  popular  in  propagat- 
ing varieties  and  species  of  grapes  and  other  vines  that 
do  not  root  readily  from  cuttings,  is  practiced  as  fol- 
lows :  In  spring  new  canes  are  laid  in  open  trenches 
two  or  three  inches  deep  and  pegged  down.  When  the 
buds  have  developed  shoots,  the  opposite  sides  of  the 
parent  canes  are  wounded  at  the  nodes  and  earth  is 
drawn  over  the  canes  and  the  bases  of  the  shoots.  After 


PROPAGATION    BY    15UDS — LAYERAGE 


having  taken  root  the  canes  are  cut  on  each  side  of  a  rooted 
node  bearing  a  shoot.  Thus  as  many  plants  may  be  se- 
cured as  there  are  shoots. 

100.  Chinese  or  pot  layers  (Fig.  58),  used  almost  wholly 
in  greenhouse  practice,  are  made  on  up- 
right stems  which  cannot  be  readily  bent 
as  in  simple  layering  or  covered  at  their 
bases  and  treated  by  the  mound  method. 
It  is  of  special  use  for  re-rooting  plants 
with  stems  that  have  become  "leggy" 
(dracaena,  oleander,  croton,  rhododen- 
dron, rubber  plant,  pandanus).  It  is  also 
FIG.  57—  of  service  in  making  the  branches  of 

HOMEMADE          such  plants  take  root. 

LAYERING      POT 


While  still  growing  ii1 
their  natural  position,  the 
stems  are  wounded,  usually 
by  girdling  or  notching,  and 
bound  with  earth,  moss  or 
some  other  moisture-holding 
material  held  in  place  with 
raffia  or  cloth  bands.  Until 
roots  have  developed,  the 
bandage  and  its  contents  are 
kept  moist  by  watering 
when  necessary  —  an  easy 
matter  in  a  greenhouse. 
Roots  push  out  from  the 
upper  side  of  the  girdle  or 
notch.  As  soon  as  they  have 
filled  the  ball  of  moss  the 
stem  is  severed  below  the 
wound  and  planted  usually 
in  a  flower  pot.  Sometimes 
the  leafage  is  reduced,  as  in 


FIG.    58— CHINESE    LAYERS 
A   favorite  way  to  increase  crotons. 


68 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


transplanting.  Often  special  flower  pots  with  open  sides 
(Fig.  57)  are  used  in  this  method;  but  as  good  results  are 
secured  with  moss  alone  as  with  them. 

101.  Mound  or  stool  layering  (Fig.  55),  which  consists 
of  burying  the  bases  of  shrub  stems  deeply  with  earth,  thus 
forcing  the  striking  of  roots,  is  of  special  utility  in  propa- 
gating short-stemmed  and  stiff-branched  shrubs.  Quinces, 
English  gooseberries  and  Paradise  apple  stocks  are  so  grown. 
When  many  plants  are  desired,  it  is  common  the  previous 
season  to  cut  down  the  shrubs  to  be  used  thus  so  as  to 

produce  numerous 
shoots  close  to  the 
ground  and  the  center  of 
the  shrub.  Preparatory 
to  covering,  these  shoots 
are  wounded  close  to  the 
ground  so  roots  will  be 
produced  quickly  in 
abundance.  One  sea- 
son's growth  is  usually 
enough  to  make  plants  capable  of  being  used  for 
setting  out.  The  advantage  of  the  method  is  that  strong, 
stocky  plants  are  thus  produced. 

102.  Runners    (Fig.   60),   special,     usually     creeping 
branches  formed  by  strawberry  and  some  other  plants, 
produce   little   clusters  of  leaves   at  each   second  node 
from  which,  under  favorable  conditions,  roots  are  devel- 
oped and  thus  new  plants  formed.    All  that  is  necessary 
to  have  the  roots  develop  is  to  anchor  the  rosettes  of 
leaves  with  clods  of  earth  or  pebbles  for  a  few  days. 

Often  the  runners  are  made  to  root  in  2  or  2 V* -inch  flower  pots 
plunged  full  depth  in  the  strawberry  bed  and  filled  with  good  soil. 
Such  plants  usually  give  better  results  than  those  allowed  to  grow 
without  this  restriction,  because  there  is  little  or  no  loss  of  roots 
when  the  potted  plants  are  transplanted. 

Four  to  eight  plants  may  be  produced  in  succession  by  one  runner ; 
but  since  the  later  ones  are  considered  inferior  and  weak  because 
they  have  less  time  in  which  to  grow,  only  the  first  one  or  perhaps 
two  rosettes  on  any  one  runner  are  allowed  to  grow  for  making 


FIG.  59— STYLES  OF  LAYERING  POTS 


PROPAGATION  BY  BUDS — LAYERAGE 


69 


plants  either  to  transplant  or  to  hear  fruit.  In  field  practice  no  such 
care  as  this  is  taken,  the  plants  being  allowed  to  root  freely  within 
the  limits  of  the  matted  or  hedgerow  width.  As  in  all  other  asexual 
methods  of  propagation,  runners  produce  the  same  variety  as  the 
parent  plants  from  which  they  are  formed. 

103.  Eapid  strawberry  propagation. — C.  Gazeau,  a  French  in- 
vestigator, claims  that  strawberries  may  be  rapidly  propagated 
thus : 


FIG.  60 — STRAWBERRY  PLANTS  READY  FOR  SETTING 

1.  Potted  runner  plant  three  weeks  after  taking  root.  2.  Plant  typical  of  those 
used  in  spring  setting.  This  has  grown  naturally  in  the  field.  3.  Same  plant  as 
in  1  with  earth  washed  off,  compared  with  plant  of  same  age  but  not  potted. 

When  the  runners  first  develop  terminal  buds  with  rosettes  of 
leaves,  they  are  layered  with  only  the  leaves  exposed.  Thus  they 
are  protected  from  accidents  and  the  weather  and  are  in  most  favor- 
able conditions  for  rooting.  In  about  two  weeks  roots  will  have 
formed  and  the  runners  extended.  These  extensions  may  be  rooted 
similarly  and  the  operation  repeatec  six  01  eight  or  even  more  times. 
Mother  plants  of  te  i  develop  six  or  eight  runners,  so  this  would  mean 
36  to  48  plants  thus  far.  But  the  first  rooted  layers  will  also  de- 
velop secondary  runners  soon  after  the  primary  ones  have  struck  root 
and  these  secondary  runners  may  be  treated  like  the  primary  ones. 
Thus  the  number  of  plants  would  be  limited  almost  wholly  by  the 
season,  the  efforts  of  the  propagator  and  the  space  at  command. 
But  then  the  terminal  buds  may  be  used  for  making  cuttings  as  soon 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


as  the  rosettes  have  two  well-formed  leaves,  the  runner  being  cut 
close  to  its  mother  plant  and  the  cuttings  placed  in  a  propagating 
bed.  The  author  finds  cuttings  less  successful  than  layers,  the 
plants  being  less  vigorous  and  slower  to  multiply.  Only  about  35 
per  cent  as  many  cutting  plants  can  be  made  as  layer  plants  in  a 
given  time.  In  such  work  the  original  mother 
plants  were  set  about  six  feet  apart  each  way 
the  previous  autumn  in  a  deeply  worked  and 
heavily  manured  bed.  The  growing  season  may 
be  lengthened  by  using  cold  frames.  Intensive 
culture  is  essential,  so  is  watering  with  liquid 
manure.  Plants  produced  by  this  method  were 
exceedingly  vigorous  and  yielded  abundantly  the 
following  year,  whereas  by  the  ordinary  field 
method,  they  did  not  bear  well  until  the  second 
year  from  taking  root. 

104.  Bulbs  are  usually  subterranean, 
specialized  buds  composed  of  short 
rudimentary  axes  inclosed  in  trans- 
formed and  thickened  leaves  or  bulb 
scales  filled  with  food.  Usually 
they  are  formed  at  the  bases  of  the  stems, 
though  they  often  develop  from  buds  inside  the  parent 
bulb,  generally  in  the  axil  of  a  bulb  scale.  They  are 
common  among  plants  which  have  a  long  resting 
period,  as  in  arid  regions,  though  they  also  occur  among 
plants  of  other  regions. 


FIG.    62— TULIP    PLANTING    IN    WASHINGTON    STATE 

1.    Making    furrows.      2.    Placing   bulbs.      As   good   bulbs    are   produced    in 
Puget  Sound  district  as  in  Holland.     The  industry  is  in  its  infancy 


PROPAGATION    I5Y    BUDS LAYKRAGK  /I 

The  trade  uses  the  term  "Dutch  bulbs"  to  designate 
those  species  which  come  commercially  from  Holland 
(hyacinth,  tulip,  narcissus,  etc.),  blossom  in  early  spring, 
and  after  their  leaves  die  down  remain  dormant  until 
the  autumn,  when  they  develop  roots  for  the  following 
season's  flowers.  Hence  the  importance  (1)  of  planting 
them  early  in  the  fall  so  root  growth  will  be  strong 
before  winter  sets  in,  and  (2)  of  allowing  the  leaves  to 
die  naturally  so  the  bulbs  will  store  ample  food. 

105.  Bulblet,  bulbel,  bulbil,  bulbule,  are  terms  concern- 
ing which  authors  do  not  agree.    For  instance,  one  defines 
"bulbels"  as  borne  attached  to  the  mother  bulb,  and  bulb- 
lets   as   borne   above   ground,   generally   in   a   leaf  axil. 
Another  applies  "bulbel"  to  the  latter  definition  and  says 
that  bulblet  is  synonymous  with  "bulbil."     In  this  book 
no  distinction  is  made ;  "bulblet"  is  most  used. 

106.  Separation  is  plant  propagation  by  vegetative  parts 


FIG.    63— CLASSES    OF    BULBS 

1.  Scaly  bulb  of  tiger  lily,  2,  solid  bulbs  (corns)  of  gladiolus  and  tuberose  and 
tunicate  bulb  of  onion.  3,  tunicate  bulb  of  onion  in  cross  section  showing  the 
sheathing  bulb  leaves. 


J2  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

that  naturally  detach  themselves  at  the  close  of  the  grow- 
ing season  and  become  or  develop  new  plants. 

107.  Bulblets  are  produced  from  transformed  flower 
buds  on  stems  above  ground  by  top  onions,  garlic  and 
some  other  plants ;  from  transformed  leaf  buds  in  the 
axils  of  the  leaves  by  tiger  lilies  (Fig.  2)  ;  and  below 
ground  around  the  bases  of  "mother"  bulbs. 


FIG.  64— HYACINTH  PROPAGATED  NATURALLY 

On  left,  bulbs  as  offered  for  sale.  Other  groups  of  bulbs  naturally  splitting  up  into 
smaller    ones. 


108.  Bulbs  and  corms  often  form  a  few  bulblets  or 
cormels  (respectively)  around  their  bases.  Sooner  or 
latter  these  grow  to  normal  flowering  size.  The  larger 
ones  may  be  separated  after  the  plants  are  dug.  It  is, 
however,  usually  better  to  leave  the  small  ones  attached 
to  the  main  bulbs  until  they  are  large  enough  to  produce 
flowers  the  following  season. 


PROPAGATION  BY  BUDS — LAYERAGE  73 

109.  Bulbs  are  of  three  classes :  a,  scaly  (lily)  ;  b,  tuni- 
cate or  laminate  (onion,  hyacinth)  ;  c,  solid  (crocus,  gla- 
diolus).    Botanically  the  last  are  called  corms. 

110.  Scaly  bulbs  (Fig.  63)  are  composed  of  loose,  thick- 
ened scales  which,  after  the  bulb  has  flowered,  may  sep- 
arate in   the  soil  and  form  new  but  little  bulbs.     Ad- 
vantage is  taken  of  this  in  propagation. 

111.  Easter  lily  "bulb  propagation  from  seeds,  experimentally,  on 
the  Pacific  Coast  has  been  found  to  be  quicker  than  from  scales  or 
even  smaller  bulbs.  Under  favorable  conditions  plants  will  give 
salable  bulbs  the  first  year.  The  usual  sizes  secured  are  five  to  seven 
inches,  but  a  considerable  percentage  of  seven  to  nine  is  common 
where  good  attention  is  given.  The  crop  ripens  in  early  August. 

In  the  Easter  lily  industry  of  Bermuda  many  scales  accidentally 
broken  from  the  bulbs  in  digging  and  handling  take  root  without 
any  care  and  produce  bulbs.  The  growers  rarely  take  advantage  of 
this  method  of  propagation  because  enough  bulblets  are  produced 
to  supply  the  needs  of  planting.  Where  the  plan  is  employed,  as 


FIG.   65— KNIFE    USED   TO    "SCOOP"    HYACINTH   BULBS 

with  rare  or  costly  species  and  varieties,  from  a  dozen  to  two  dozen 
of  the  looser,  thicker  outside  scales  are  gently  cut  in  mid-autumn 
to  mid-winter  from  the  hard  base  of  the  bulb,  which  thus  does 
not  cease  to  be  useful  for  replanting. 

These  scales  are  thrust  an  inch  deep  in  light,  sandy  loam  in  a 
propagating  frame  or  flats  or  pots  and  treated  like  cuttings. 

Damp  sphagnum  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  soil.  If  the  soil 
is  kept  slightly  moist  and  the  temperature  under  60  but  not  below 
45,  some  hardy  and  half  hardy  species  will  form  bulblets  in  a  month 
or  even  less;  others  require  three  months  or  more.  Tender  species 
often  seem  to  need  a  little  bottom  heat. 

If  conditions  have  been  favorable  and  the  scales  fully  "ripe"  when 
planted  one  or  more  bulblets  should  have  developed  at  the  base  of 
each  scale.  If  the  planting  has  been  done  late,  the  flats  or  pots  may 
be  placed  in  a  shaded  frame  outdoors  in  spring  and  left  there  during 
summer,  or  the  bulblets  may  be  potted  as  soon  as  they  have  rooted 
and  later  transplanted  in  nursery  beds.  The  scales  of  hardy  species 
are  usually  left  in  the  flats  or  outdoor  frames  all  summer  and 
mulched  over  the  following  winter.  In  the  second  spring  they  are 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


FIG.  66— HYACINTH  PROPAGATION 
Reading    down — natural    method;     notched 

bulbs    early    stage,    later    stage;    final    stage.     inate     hulh«?          P>\ 
The   largest   of   the   bulbs   may   become    large     "  DU1DS.        &y 

enough   for  sale    in   two   years. 


transferred  to  nursery  beds. 
At  the  close  of  the  second 
season  the  majority  should 
be  large  enough  for  sale. 

Lily  bulbs  are  best  dug 
soon  after  their  tops  have 
died.  The  shorter  time  they 
remain  out  of  the  ground 
and  the  cooler  they  are  kept 
the  better.  Small  bulblets 
should  be  allowed  to  remain 
attached  to  the  parent  bulbs ; 
but  those,  half  an  inch  or 
more  across,  may  be  sepa- 
rated and  grown  in  nursery 
beds  another  season. 

112.  Easter  lilies  from  seed. 
—To  avoid  lily  disease,  G.  W. 
Oliver      advocates      growing 
Easter  lilies  from  seed  rather 
than    from    bulbs.      He     has 
thus   produced   plants   which 
bloomed  within  seven  months. 

113.  Lily   bulb   disease   is 
caused   by   Rhisopus   necans, 
a  parasitic  fungus  which  ap- 
parently cannot  penetrate  un- 
broken   tissues,      but      gains 
entrance  to  the  bulbs  through 
broken  roots;   for  bulbs  ex- 
perimented   with    were      not 
diseased  when  dug.  A  brief 
immersion  in  salicylic  acid  or 
dilute        corrosive    sublimate 
solution    (1  to  100)    will  de- 
stroy all  spores  on  the  bulbs. 
Daffodils   are   subject  to  the 
same  disease.     Precautionary 
measures,  such  as  rotation  of 
crops,  avoidance  of  injury  to 
roots  and  destruction  of  ref- 
use,       are        recommended. 
When    exported     the     bulbs 
should  first  be  dipped  in  the 
fungicide     and     allowed     to 
sweat       thoroughly       before 
shipment. 

114.  Tunicate  or  lam- 

ordi- 
natural    increase 


nary, 


PROPAGATION  BY  BUDS — LAYERAGE  75 

only  two  to  half  a  dozen  bulblets  are  reproduced 
each  year.  These  ordinarily  require  one  to  three  or  four 
years  to  attain  salable  size.  For  rapid  propagation  the 
bulbs  are  handled  as  described  by  Fred  De  Meulder  in 
the  Florists'  Exchange,  condensed  as  follows : 

115.  Hyacinth  propagation — Nature  has  an  easy  method  of  in- 
creasing tulips,  narcissus,  crocus  and  other  bulbous  plants.  These 
bulbs,  dividing  into  several  parts,  multiply  themselves  without  the 
aid  of  human  skill.  Not  so  the  hyacinth,  which  if  left  to  its  own 
devices,  multiplies  in  such  a  way  that  each  succeeding  generation  of 
young  bulbs  is  more  dwarfed  than  the  former,  making  it  impossible 
to  get  anything  like  fair  specimens. 

It  was  observed  that  the  hyacinth  generally  forms  bulblets  where 
the  old  bulbs  have  been  injured.  This  useful  hint  has  led  to  pur- 
posely wounding  the  bulbs.  Repeated  experiments  have  developed 
two  distinct  methods;  "scooping"  and  "notching."  In  the  first  (Fig. 
69)  the  hard  base  of  the  bulb  is  cut  away,  leaving  the  bottom  scooped 
out;  every  section  or  layer  of  the  bulb  is  thus  cut  through.  In  the 
second  method  the  cutting  is  done  transversely  to  a  depth  which  the 
cultivator  has  learned  from  experience  to  estimate. 

Each  treatment  has  advantages  and  drawbacks.  Bulbs  scooped 
leave  three  times  the  number  of  bulblets  and  of  much  greater  vitality, 
as  appears  from  the  preference  shown  them  in  the  selection  of  ma- 
terial for  forcing.  Those  notched  give  less  returns,  but  in  a  much 
shorter  time,  producing  flowering  bulbs  in  three  to  four  years,  while 
the  others  require  four  to  five.  More  skill  is  required  in  scooping 
than  in  notching,  though  a  casual  observer  might  say  that  both  are 
delicate  operations.  Perhaps  the  cultivator  bases  his  estimate  of  the 
skill  needed  on  the  comparative  value  and  number  of  bulblets  en- 
dangered, so  that  operation  would  be  the  more  critical  which  is  to 
bring  about  the  better  and  more  numerous  bulblets.  If  gouged 
out  too  much,  wounding  the  bulb  to  the  extent  of  seriously  weak- 
ening it,  a  limited  amount  of  enfeebled  young  bulbs  is  the  result; 
if  scooped  not  enough,  the  remaining  solid  matter  at  the  base  ef- 
fectually impedes  or  even  frustrates  the  formation  of  bulblets. 

The  second  method  seems  to  entail  as  much  risk  to  the  mother 
bulb  and  her  offspring.  Transverse  cutting  looks  simple  enough ; 
and  so  it  is.  But  long  experience  and  careful  attention  have  taught 
the  workmen  just  how  deeply  to  cut.  Here  again  there  is  danger 
of  seriously  damaging  the  bulb.  Cut  too  deeply,  and  the  whole 
bulb  is  lost;  not  deeply  enough,  a  very  limited  and  dwarfish  prog- 
eny. Planters  differ  in  their  use  of  the  two  methods;  dividing  the 
annual  stock  equally  between  the  two  is  common. 

Both  classes  of  bulbs  undergo  practically  the  same  treatment  in 
the  "nurse-room,"  a  place  in  the  bulb  house  reserved  for  them  and 
kept  at  a  high  temperature.  Here  they  remain  until — after  a 
fortnight  or  so — about  one  hundred  bulblets  in  the  case  of  scooped 


PLANT.    PROPAGATION 


FIG.   67— HYACINTH    PROPAGATION 
Reading   down— cutting  the  bulbs;   nursery 
storage   house;    interior   of     house     showing 
shelves    for   storing   cut   bulbs;    planting   the 
bulbs   after  being   stored. 


bulbs,  and  thirty  in  that  of 
notched  ones  are  formed 
upon  them.  They  are  left 
until  after  all  the  other 
bulbs  are  planted  so  as  to 
give  them  the  care  of  the 
nursery  as  long  as  possible. 
Then,  usually  the  last  week 
in  October  or  the  first  in 
November,  they  are  taken 
to  the  field  and  planted. 
The  ground  has  been  care- 
fully prepared  for  them; 
well  dug  and  liberally  dress- 
ed with  well-rotted  cow 
manure  earlier  in  the  year. 
This  kind  of  fertilizer  is 
preferred  to  others,  both 
because  it  is  cheaper  and 
because  it  is  less  harmful 
to  the  hyacinth,  whose  ex- 
tremely sensitive  bulb  would 
be  burned  up  by  commer- 
cial fertilizers.  Hyacinths 
cannot  be  set  in  the  same 
ground  except  at  two-year 
intervals,  or  at  one-year  in- 
tervals if  the  soil  is  turned 
up  from  a  much  greater 
depth.  Tulips  and  hyacinths 
thrive  on  ground  used  for 
each  other  alternately. 

Taken  to  the  field,  the 
bulbs  are  set  in  the  ground 
about  five  inches  deep  and 
an  area  of  about  five  inches 
square  is  allowed  for  each. 
The  flower  beds  are  three 
feet  wide  and  a  path  one 
foot  wide  is  left  between 
them.  When  all  is  ready, 
the  whole  field  is  covered 
with  about  10  inches  of  hay 
or  straw;  a  necessary  pre- 
caution, for^the  hyacinth  is 
very  susceptible  to  cold.  The 
fields  lie  thus  till  spring, 
when  tops  develop.  The 
flower  stems  are  cut  about 
10  days  after  flowers  appear 
to  strengthen  the  bulbs. 


PROPAGATION  BY  BUDS — LAYERAGE  77 

The  bulbs  now  begin  to  enlarge  and  are  left  to  grow  during 
April  and  May.  About  the  middle  of  May,  with  fair,  warm 
weather,  the  leaves  turn  yellow,  a  sign  that  the  bulbs  are  matured 
and  can  be  taken  out. 

When  the  bulbs  are  dug,  the  new  bulblets  are  the  size  of  acorns; 
and  the  mother  bulb  has  almost  entirely  disappeared,  having  served 
as  food  for  her  numerous  progeny.  These  are  taken  to  the 
warehouses  and  placed  on  lath  frames  to  dry,  merely  a  matter  of 
plenty  of  air  and  ordinary  summer  temperature.  This  is  also 
the  case  with  the  old  bulbs  of  the  "notched"  class.  The  opinion 
prevalent  in  some  quarters  that  it  is  necessary  to  apply  absor- 
bent material  to  all  bulbs  after  treatment  experience  has  proved  to 
be  without  foundation.  Only  in  the  case  of  "scooped"  bulbs  is  it 
found  necessary  to  apply  an  absorbent. 

Cleaning  the  bulbs,  a  process  always  attended  with  danger  of 
damage,  is  deferred  until  fall  when  an  injury  will  be  speedily 
healed  by  the  earth  in  which  the  bulbs  are  soon  after  placed.  Set 
in  the  ground  again  in  October,  the  new  bulbs  bear  leaves  the  fol- 
lowing spring.  The  second  year  those  of  the  notched  class  flower, 
while  the  others  need  still  another  season.  The  flowering  bulbs 
ready  for  shipment  are  carefully  sorted,  packed  with  chaff  in 
large  paper  bags  or  in  boxes  according  to  the  quantity. 

The  propagation  of  some  species  of  tulips  must  be  left  entirely 
to  nature;  no  scientific  cutting  of  the  bulb  can  be  done.  Left 
to  itself  this  plant  yields  three  or  four  bulblets  only  one  or  two  of 
which  survive  and  mature.  The  process  of  growing  the  young 
bulbs  is  simple.  The  bulblets  appear  attached  to  the  mother  bulb 
after  the  blooming  period,  the  old  bulb  being  "eaten  up."  The  fol- 
lowing spring  the  little  ones  are  removed,  cleaned  and  re-planted, 
the  bulblet  thus  having  taken  two  years  to  mature. 

116.  Corms  (Fig.  63)  usually  produce  one  to  three  new 
ones  above  the  old  ones,  which  shrivel  and  die.     Between 
the  old  and  the  new  several  little  ones  called  "spawn" 
are  formed.    These  may  be  separated  and  grown  a  year 
or  two  to  form  large  corms.     Besides  the  central  bud, 
from  which  the  flower  stem  is  usually  produced,  a  corm 
often  bears,  near  its  apex,  several  little  buds,  which  may 
be  artificially  made  to  form  new  corms  (or  cormels)  by 
cutting  through  the  substance  of  the  bulb  around  them. 
After  the  original  corm  has  borne  its  flower  stem  and 
leaves,  it  gradually  shrivels  and  dies  and  a  new  corm 
forms  around  the  base  of  the  stem  above  the  old  corm. 

117.  Care  of  bulbs  and  corms.    From  the  garden  stand- 
point bulbs  and  corms  are  of  two  classes  :  a,  spring  bloom- 
ing, b,   summer  blooming.    The   former,   all  hardy,  are 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


FIG.   6&-HYACINTH   PROPAGATION 
Top,    harvesting;    middle,    cleaning    bulbs;    bottom,    machine    grading. 


PROPAGATIOX  BY  BUDS — LAYERAGE  79 

planted  in  fall  for  outdoor  blooming  and  mulched  with 
leaves  or  litter  during  winter.  For  best  results  over  a 
series  of  years  their  tops  must  be  allowed  to  mature 
before  being  cut  or  dug.  When  dug  they  must  be  dried 
in  the  shade,  cleaned  and  stored  in  bags  or  trays  in  an 
airy,  dry,  cool  place  till  fall.  Most  spring-blooming 
bulbs  (hyacinth,  tulips,  narcissus)  come  from  Holland. 

Summer-blooming  bulbs  (gladiolus,  tuberose,  zephyr- 
anthes,  etc.)  are  mostly  tender.  They  are  planted  in 
spring,  usually  after  the  soil  has  become  warm.  Be- 


FIG.  69— SCOOPED  HYACINTH  BULBS 

Early  and  later  stages  respectively.  The  bulblets  require  two  to  five  years  to  reach 
salable    sizes. 

cause  of  their  tenderness  they  must  be  dug  before  the 
ground  freezes  hard,  and  after  drying  in  an  airy  shed  or 
other  shelter,  stored  in  a  dry,  warm  place  such  as  a  cellar 
with  a  furnace  in  it  or  on  boards  under  greenhouse 
benches.  Before  resetting  in  spring  they  must  be  cleaned. 

118.  Temperatures  for  "bulb  storing. — Lily-of-the-valley  pips  are 
cold  stored  at  25  to  30  degrees  and  bulbs  at   17  for  the  first  two 
weeks,  after  which  the  temperature  is  raised  and  kept  at  24  till  the 
bulbs  are  needed  for  forcing  in  greenhouses. 

119.  Bulb  growing  in  America.    Tuberoses  have  long 
been  grown  extensively  in  North  Carolina;  gladioli  in 
New  York,  Ohio,  Kentucky  and  other  states ;  and  other 
summer-blooming  bulbs   in  various   parts   of  America ; 


8o 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


but  so  far  we  have  no  tunicate  or  scaly  bulb  industry 
comparable  with  that  of  Japan,  Bermuda  or  Holland. 
Probably  this  is  because  until  recently  little  attention 
has  been  devoted  to  the  work.  But  good  bulbs  can  be 
grown  in  this  country. 

120.  The  bulb  industry  in  Washington  State  has  been  slow  to  de- 
velop, mainly  because  the  rail  cost  of  delivery  in  eastern  markets  is 
higher  than  the  water  cost  from  Europe.     The  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  has  for  several  years  been  experimenting 
in   this   industry   and   has    published    a   progress    report.     Virginia 
grown   narcissus,    tested   at   the    Department   of    Agriculture   with 
European  bulbs  from  three  sources,  gave  decidedly  better  results. 

An  Illinois  experimenter  is  reported  to  have  grown  annually 
about  100,000  bulbs  of  tulip,  narcissus  and  lily-of-the-valley  on  low 
well-drained,  deep,  black  loam,  heavily  manured  with  stable  manure. 
The  majority  of  the  bulbs  were  somewhat  smaller  than  the  imported 
ones,  but  in  earliness  and  use  for  forcing,  size  of  flowers  and  length 
of  Astern  were  apparently  as  good,  except  lily-of-the-valley  flowers, 
which  excelled  in  size,  substance  and  number  of  bells. 

121.  Division  is  a  form  of  separation  in  which  the  parts 
do  not  naturally  break  apart  but  may  be  easily  torn  or 

cut  from  the  parent 
plant  (rhizomes,  tubers, 
offsets,  crowns).  Where 
separation  ends  and  divi- 
sion begins  is  hard  to 
say,  because  they  blend 
one  into  the  other. 

122.  Rhizome,  or  root- 
stock,    a      subterranean 
stem,  especially    if    uni- 
formly thick,  for  storage 
of  plant  food. 

123.  Stolon,  a  slender 
branch   which   naturally 
takes   root   or    bears    a 
bud     at    its    extremity, 
where    it   forms   a   new 

FIG.   7(^-BULB    "SCOOPING"    MACHINE  .  jt    jg  duced 

Used    by    U.    S.    Government    in    Washington      r.  ,      .  i 

state  buib  growing.  above  or  below  ground. 


PROPAGATION  BY  BUDS — LAYERAGE 


Si 


124.  Off-sets  are  short,  lateral  branches  or  stolons  pro- 
duced near  the  bases  of  plants  to  serve  in  natural  propa- 
gation.    They  usually  take  root  and  become  new  plants 
(houseleek,  also  known  as  hen  and  chickens). 

125.  Crowns  are  rooted  buds  formed  usually  at  the 
tips  of  rhizomes  or  underground  stems  and  at  the  close 


FIG.   71— SWEET   POTATO   PROPAGATION 

1.    Dropping    and    planting    "slips."    2.    "Slips"    as    pulled    from    propagating    bed. 
3.  Fire-heated  hotbed. 


82 


PLANT     PROPAGATION 


ool   Room 
12  x  12  FT 


Forcing  Room 


Hot  Bed      6  X60    FI 


FIG.   72— FIRE-HEATED   HOTBED   OR  SWEET  POTATO    PLANT   STARTER 

A,   sectional   view   through   side;    B,   ground   plan:   C,   cross   sections;   D,    general 
outside    view;    E,    construction;    F.    detail. 


PROPAGATION    15 Y    BUDS — LAYERAGE  83 

of  the  growing  season  of  the  individual  species.  Each 
season  they  push  forward  and  also  develop  flowering 
stems  and  leaves  (May  apple,  achillea,  Solomon's  seal, 
Johnson  grass,  Bermuda  grass,  etc.).  Lily-x)f-the-valley 
is  one  of  the  commercially  most  important  crown-bearing 
plants.  Its  "pips"  are  annually  imported  from  Europe 
by  the  million  to  supply  the  demands  of  florists.  Until 
needed  for  forcing,  the  pips  are  generally  cold  stored. 


FIG.    73— IRISH    POTATOES   SPROUTING 

At   left,   tuber   sprouting   in   cellar;    middle,   one    sprouted    in    full    sunlight;    right, 
tuber  planted  in  soil. 

126.  Rosette,  a  cluster  of  leaves  or  other  organs  ar- 
ranged somewhat  like  the  petals  of  a  double  rose ;  for 
instance,  the  radical  leaves  of  dandelion  and  carrot,  the 
stolons  of  houseleek. 

127.  Rough  division  is  often  practiced  when  herbaceous 
perennials  grow  too  thick   (phlox,  rhubarb,  peony,  iris) 
by  digging  up  and  cutting  the  clumps  in  pieces  with  a 
sharp    spade.      The   best   pieces    are    re-planted.      Many 
shrubs  (snowball,  lilac,  barberrv)  are  so  treated.       This, 


84  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

the  crudest  form  of  division,  is  little  practiced  in  a  com- 
mercial way,  more  in  home  gardens. 

128.  Tubers  are  short,  thickened  parts  of  subterranean 
branches  (Irish  potato,  dahlia)  stored  with  plant  food, 
largely  starch,  to  start  new  plants  at  the  beginning  of 
the  next  growing  season  or  other  period  of  stress.    An- 
other view  is   that  parent  tubers   serve   as   water  res- 
ervoirs, since  experiment  has  shown  that  they  are  heavier 
after  the  plant  has   grown   several   weeks   than   before 
growth  starts,  due  to  accumulation  of  water  during  plant 
growth.  Often  thickened  roots  (sweet  potato)  are  popu- 
lar^ classed  with  tubers.     Botanically  the  distinction  is 
that  true  tubers  have  "eyes"  or  buds,  whereas  thickened 
roots  do  not.    In  practice,  true  tubers  (Irish  potato)  are 
often  used  for  making  cuttings,  whereas  thickened  roots 
(sweet  potato)  are  generally  planted  whole,  either  direct 
in  the  field  or  in  hotbeds  (Figs.  72,  80),  and  sprouts  taken 
from  them  for  transplanting. 

When  tubers  are  planted  whole,  just  as  broken  from  the  parent 
plant,  the  process  is  called  division;  but  when  cut  in  pieces,  each 
bearing  one  or  more  eyes,  it  is  called  cuttage  (138).  From  the  eyes 
shoots  are  developed.  Roots  form  at  the  bases  of  these  shoots 
(Fig.  73),  not  from  the  tuber  itself.  As  growth  progresses  special 
stems  are  produced  above  the  roots  and  swell  into  new  tubers. 

Tubers  are  most  frequently  found  in  arid  climates,  but  are  by  no 
means  rare  in  moist  ones.  Like  bulbs,  some  are  hardy,  some  tender. 
Hardy  species  (Jerusalem  artichoke)  do  best  left  in  the  open 
ground  until  spring;  tender  ones  (dahlia,  potato)  must  be  dug_in 
fall  and  stored  in  a  cool  place  not  too  dry  nor  too  moist,  otherwise 
they  will  either  shrivel  or  mold. 

When  true  tubers  are  cut  (dahlia)  each  piece  must  have  at  least 
one  bud,  because  such  tubers  do  not  produce  adventitious  buds,  but 
when  thickened  roots  (sweet  potato)  are  cut  and  placed  in  a  prop- 
agating bed,  adventitious  buds  develop  and  produce  stems.  Roots 
almost  never  grow  from  the  tubers  or  the  cuttings  themselves,  but 
from  the  bases  of  sprouts.  The  shoots  may,  therefore,  be  removed 
and  planted  separately,  as  is  almost  always  done  with  sweet  potato 
and  often  in  increasing  stock  of  new  varieties  of  Irish  potato.  Other 
shoots  soon  develop  from  the  tubers,  and  the  process  may  be  re- 
peated several  times.  Pseudo-bulbs  of  orchids  are  similarly  handled. 

129.  Hastening  growth  of  potatoes  may  be  done  in  three  wavs. 
summarized  by  the  Rhode  Island  Station  as  the  result  of  experiments 
thus :     a,  by  planting  sets  in  pots  in  greenhouses  and  transplanting 


PROPAGATION  BY  BUDS LAYERAGE  85 

to  open  ground;  b,  by  "sprouting" — that  is,  planting  sets  thickly  in 
cold  frames,  and  when  ready  to  "break  ground"  transplanting  them 
to  the  field,  etc.;  c,  by  "budding" — that  is,  subjecting  seed  tubers  the 
size  of  hens'  eggs  from  four  to  six  or  more  weeks  to  the  action  of 
moderate  heat  and  light  so  one  or  two  strong  buds  of  a  dark  color 
and  ready  to  develop  leaves  and  roots  are  formed  on  each  tuber, 
while  all  other  buds  remain  practically  dormant.  Budded  seed 
tubers,  compared  with  dormant  ones,  in  89  days  from  planting  gave 
an  increase  of  nearly  22  bushels  of  merchantable  potatoes  and  a  gain 
in  total  yield  of  32  1-3  bushels  an  acre.  Compared  in  111  days  they 
gave  an  increase  of  41  bushels  of  merchantable  potatoes  and  a  total 
gain  in  yield  of  54  2-3  bushels  an  acre.  For  budding,  seed  tubers  of 
one  to  three  ounces  are  to  be  preferred.  They  may  be  "greened"  by 
exposure  to  light  on  ground  free  from  vegetation,  directly  after 
digging,  and  placed  in  trays  at  any  convenient  time  during  winter. 

130.  Germinating  seed  potatoes  in  boxes  in  Scotland  has  given  an 
average  of  nearly  1,100  pounds  an  acre  gain  in  crop.     Potato  tubers 
partially  dried  are  also  said  to  make  more  productive  *plants  than 
those  not  dried. 

131.  Sweet   potato   propagation — Sweet   potatoes    develop    new 
stems  from  adventitious  buds  which  appear  anywhere  on  the  surface. 
Usually  they  are  propagated  by  being  split  lengthwise  in  early  spring 
and  laid  flat  side  downward  in  a  mild  hotbed  filled  with  light  soil 
or  sand.     The  "slips"  or  sprouts  are  carefully  pulled  when  four  to 
six  inches  long  and  transplanted  in  the  field.     New  varieties  of  Irish 
potato  are  often  propagated  in  this  way  and  also  by  stem  cuttings 
so  produced  (166). 


CHAPTER  VII 
BOTTOM  HEAT 

132.  Bottom  heat  is  the  heat  applied  beneath  the  grow- 
ing plants  by  means  of  fermenting  material  (manure, 
spent  tan  bark,  brewers'  grains,  etc.)  by  warm  flues,  hot 
water  or  steam.  It  is  used  more  or  less  for  all  kinds  of 
seeds  started  in  advance  of  the  outdoor  season,  espe- 
cially for  those  of  warm  climate  plants,  but  only  seeds  of 
certain  tropical  plants  require  high  heat  to  germinate. 
Most  garden  seeds  do  not  need  bottom  heat,  though  many 
sprout  quicker  if  warmed  from  below ;  always  when 
bottom  heat  is  used  the  seedlings  should  be  removed  to 
cooler  places  very  soon  or  they  will  become  "leggy" ; 
i.  e.,  tall,  spindling,  and  weak.  Good  ventilation  by  day 
will  help  make  them  "stocky"  and  strong. 


FIG.    74— STRAW    MAT    FOR    COVERING    HOTBEDS    AND    COLD    FRAMES 


BOTTOM    HEAT  87 

The  expression  "ten  degrees  of  bottom  heat"  means 
that  the  bed  should  be  that  many  degrees  warmer  than 
the  air  just  above  the  bed  or  in  the  propagating  house. 
Usually,  however,  the  temperature  of  the  bed  is  indicated, 
as  60,  70,  or  some  other  degree. 

133.  Natural  bottom  heat  obtained  from  the  sun  during 
the  day  is  of  importance  at  all  times,  but  is  scarcely  con- 
sidered in  greenhouse  winter  work,  except  as  something 
to  offset  heat  from  the  pipes  in  the  propagating  house. 
In  hotbed,  cold  frame  and  other  structures  not  usually 


FIG.    75— MAKING    A    CONCRETE    HOTBED 


The  trenches  being  dug  were 
After  the  concrete  had  "set"  the  < 
partly  by  hand. 


filled    with    concrete    without    "forms." 
was    taken    out,    partly    by    horse    scoop, 


heated  artificially  it  is  of  great  importance,  especially  in 
spring.  During  the  day  the  sun  penetrates  the  surface 
layer  of  soil,  which  becomes  warm.  During  the  night 
this  heat  is  given  off  slowly  and  checked  by  mats  (Fig. 
74) and  shutters  (Fig.  48),  so  the  fullest  use  may  be  made 
of  it.  The  depth  to  which  the  soil  may  thus  be  warmed 
depends  upon  the  intensity  of  the  light,  the  color  and 
other  characters  of  the  soil ;  for  instance,  dark  soils 
absorb  more  rapidly  than  light  ones. 

134.  Application  of  bottom  heat  may  be  obtained  in 
any  of  the  following  ways : 

1.  Hotbeds  (Fig.  80)     in    which    manure,    tan    bark, 


88 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


brewers'  grains,  spent  hops,  or  other  fermenting  material 
is  used,  as  a  source  of  heat.  Fresh  horse  manure  is  the 
most  popular  of  such  materials. 

2.  By  horizontal  brick  or  tile  flues  which  carry  the 
gases  of  fires  beneath  the  benches  of  a  greenhouse  or  of 
a  hotbed.  This  method  of  warming  greenhouses  is  prac- 
tically obsolete,  but  for  hotbeds,  especially  for  propagat- 


FIG.   76— "SWEAT   BOX"   FOR   PROPAGATING 

.High    temperature    and    humidity    secured    by    closing    top    and    lowering    burlap 
curtains   below. 

ing  sweet  potato  plants  (Fig.  72),  it  is  very  popular  in 
Delaware,  Maryland  and  more  southern  states. 

3.  Hot  water  and  steam  in  iron  pipes  (Fig.  77)  are  by 
far  the  most  popular  commercial  methods  of  heating  be- 
cause of  their  ready  adaptability  to  any  sized  house. 

4.  Confining  air  and  heat  above  the  cutting  bed  by 
means   of  glass    sash    over   hotbed-like    frames   on   the 


BOTTOM    HEAT 


FIG.   77— PIPE-WARMED   HOTBED 

a,  plant  support;   b,  hot- water  pipes;  c,  \ 
tanks. 


greenhouse  benches.  (Fig.  76.)  When  necessary  to  in- 
tensify the  heat  the  space  beneath  the  bench  is  walled 
in  tightly  to  confine  the  heat.  In  a  small  way  bell 
glasses  and  similar  utensils  (Fig.  32)  are  placed  over 
seeds,  seedlings  or  cuttings  on  the  benches  or  merely  over 

a  soup  plate  or  a  sau- 
cer filled  with  sand 
which  covers  the  cut- 
tings. Sun  heat  alone 
is  often  used  in  such 
cases. 

5.  Propagating  ovens 
(Figs.  36,  37)  are  some- 
times used    for    small 
lots  of  seeds     or     cut- 
tings,    as     in     schools 
where      teaching      the 
principles  of  plant  cul- 
ture rather  than   com- 
mercial work  is  the  aim,  where  the  room  temperature 
falls  low  during  the  night  and  where  there  are  no  green- 
house facilities. 

They  are  generally  heated  by  lamps  and  are  usually  more  or  less 
insulated  boxes  with  only  three  to  five  cubic  feet  content.     In  the 
bottom  is  a  chamber  for  a  kerosene  lamp  reached  by  a  door  for  fill- 
ing and  other  attention.  Above  the  lamp  is  a 
galvanized   iron   water   tray   and   above   this   a 
perforated  floor.     Next  above  is  the  sand  tray 
in  which  the  cuttings  are  placed  for  propaga- 
tion.    The  cover  is  of  glass.     By  means  of  the 
lamp  the  water  is  made  to  give  off  vapor  which 
keeps  sand  and  air  above  it  warm  and  moist. 
Regulation  of  the  size  of  the  flame  and  of  the 
ventilators   will   control   both   temperature   and 
humidity  in  the  propagating  chamber. 

135.  Bottom    and    air    heat    effects. 
All     growth     in     plants     results     from 
a      stimulus     of     some     kind.     Various   agents      may 
bring   it   about ;   for   instance,     ether     vapor.      So   far, 
however,   as   the   commercial   plant   propagator   is  con- 


SINGLE    LIGHT 
MELON    FRAME 


PLANT     PROPAGATION 


cerned  heat  is  the  only  important  one.  For  though  all 
these  agents  produce  the  same  effect  (arousing  the  ac- 
tivity of  enzymes  or  ferments,  chemically  or  physically, 
to  change  and  make  available  the  stored  plant  food, 
especially  that  near  the  buds),  heat  is  the  most  active, 

most  normal,  and  most 
easily  and  economically 
applied.  Therefore,  the 
plant  grower,  while  in- 
terested in  the  abnor- 
mal agents,  applies 
heat  under  proper  con- 
trol to  secure  a  healtliy 
growth  where  he 
knows  it  is  needed  first 
of  all. 

Cuttings  after  being  set  in  the  propagating  bed  always 
begin  to  grow  at  the  part  most  favorably  placed  as  to 
temperature.  That  is,  if  a  stem  cutting  be  placed  so  its 
upper  end  is  in  an  air  temperature  appreciably  higher 
than  that  of  the  soil,  growth  will  begin  in  the  upper  buds. 
With  no  cuttings  is  this  so  apparent  as  with  cuttings  of 
immature  wood,  grown  in  a  greenhouse.  \Vhen  bottom 
heat  is  lacking  and  the  air  warmed,  even  only  by  sun 
heat,  the  buds  expand  into  new  stems  and  leaves ;  but 
few  or  usually  no  roots  are  produced.  Such  conditions 


FIG.    79— ONE    "LIGHT"    FORCING    FRAME 
The    sash     lifts     for     ventilation 


FIG.    80— HOTBED    "KNOCKED    DOWN"    TO    SHOW    CONSTRUCTION 


11UTTO.M     I  IK  AT 


FIG.    81 

GLASS    COVERED    CUT- 
TING   FRAME. 


must  be  avoided,  because  the  reverse  are  necessary  to  root 
making,  which  should  always,  except  perhaps  with  tuber 
and  root  cuttings,  precede  growth  of  stem  and  leaf. 

The  philosophy  of  this  is  apparent ;  for  when  growth 
starts,  the  foods  stored  in  the  plant  are  moved  rapidly  to 
the  part  that  has  become  active. 
Hence  if  the  part  be  above  ground 
all  the  food  goes  there ;  in  fact,  is 
removed  from  the  part  that  should 
form  roots.  Result,  breakdown  and 
death.  Conversely,  if  the  air  be 
cool  and  the  soil  sufficiently  warm 
from  start  to  finish  the  cuttings  soon 

develop  calluses  and  roots  (Fig.  91)  upon  which  top 
growth  normally  depends.  Hence  such  conditions  should 
be  maintained,  because  if  cuttings  are  properly  planted 
growth  will  occur  only  below  ground,  where  it  should 
be.  \Yhen  once  the  roots  have  begun  to  grow  below 

ground  plant  food  ma- 
terials can  be  taken  up 
by  the  roots  and  trans- 
ferred to  the  parts  above 
ground.  As  soon  as 
green  matter  has  been 
developed  by  the  ex- 
panding buds  (already 
present  in  green  wood 
and  leaf  cuttings)  it  can 
work  over  the  crude 
food  in  the  presence  of 
sunlight  and  the  full 
functions  of  plant 
growth  will  have  started 
properly  above  and  be- 
low ground. 

Mature  wood  cuttings 
FIG.   82— SWEET   POTATOES  AND  VINE  can  stand  greater  hard- 


92  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

ships  in  propagating  before  making  roots  than  can  imma- 
ture wood  cuttings,  because  they  contain  considerable 
stored  food,  but  even  they  should  not  be  started  in  warm 
air  and  cool  soil.  With  green  wood  cuttings,  root  growth 
must  always  precede  leaf  and  stem  growth  or  death 
will  almost  alwavs  result. 


FIG.    83— TWO    STYLES    OF    COLD    FRAMES 

1.  Concrete  walls   around  beds  covered  with  sash  on  wooden    framework.   2. 
Board  frames  on  ground  for  temporary  use. 

136.  Hotbed  making.  In  making  a  hotbed  a  pit  one 
to  two  feet  deep,  six  feet  wide  and  any  desired  length 
(preferably  a  multiple  of  three  feet,  because  standard 
hotbed  sashes  are  3  x  6  feet)  is  excavated  and  filled  with 


BOTTOM    HEAT  93 

the  freshest  possible  horse  manure  that  has  not  been  ex- 
posed to  the  weather.  Should  the  manure  be  dry  in 
spots,  sufficient  water  must  be  added  to  moisten  it,  the 
whole  pile  worked  over  at  least  twice  (three  times  pre- 
ferred), so  the  manure  may  assume  a  somewhat  dry,  oily 
appearance.  Then  it  should  be  piled.  A  layer  of  less 
than  six  inches  in  the  bed  will  usually  give  poor  results; 
12  to  18  inches  are  the  usual  depths.  Then  a  layer  of 
say  four  inches  of 
good  friable  soil  is 
placed  on  the  manure, 
and  lastly  a  surface 
inch  or  ,so  of  fibrous 
compost,  which  be- 
cause of  its  content  of 
thoroughly  rotted  ma- 
nure, grass  roots,  etc., 
will  bake  very  little  af- 
ter watering.  Sifted 
loam  or  compost  FIG-  ^-SHIFTING  PLANTS 

c1i,~>ii1rl  V>*>  nc^rl  fr>r  tVi<=  The  bal1  of  earth  comes  out  freely  when  the 
ShOUld  be  Used  tor  the  pot  rim  is  knocked  downward  as  shown. 

seed   bed.     After     the 

sash  are  put  on  the  frames  the  temperature 
should  be  allowed  to  rise  very  high.  After  this  subsides 
somewhat  seeds  may  be  sown.  During  the  violent  heat- 
ing period  a  little  ventilation  should  be  given.  Banking 
around  the  outside  aids  in  retaining  heat. 

Hotbeds  in  the  South,  and  to  some  extent  also  in  the 
North,  are  often  made  wholly  above  ground ;  i.  e.,  without 
any  pit.  The  quantity  of  manure  needs  to  be  greater 
for  a  given  locality  than  when  a  pit  is  used  because  of 
loss  of  heat  at  the  sides  of  the  pile.  Depth  of  pit,  manure 
and  whether  a  pit  shall  or  shall  not  be  used  depend  upon 
the  climate  and  the  season  when  the  bed  is  made. 

137.  Fire-fanging  is  due  to  various  fungi  and  bacteria 
working  in  rather  dry  manure,  which  they  injure  by 
"burning  up"  the  vegetable  matter.  To  prevent  this 


94 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


trouble,  the  manure  should  be  decidedly  moist  if  not  wet 
and  packed  well.  Should  slight  injury  occur  the  pile 
should  be  shaken  out  well,  wetted  and  re-stacked. 


FIG.  85— PROPAGATING   SHEDS   IN   FLORIDA  NURSERY 

Plants  started  in   greenhouses   or  other  beds   are   moved  to    the   sheds   when    well 
rooted. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
CUTTAGE 

138.  Cuttage  is  propagation  by  plant  parts — roots, 
rhizomes,  tubers,  stems  or  leaves — cut  in  pieces  with  or 
without  buds.  These  pieces  take  root  and  asexually 
produce  new  plants  of  the  same  variety  as  the  parent 
plant.  It  is  in  general  a  cheap,  quick  and  handy  way  to 
secure  large  numbers  of  plants  in  a  given  time.  But 
while  all  plants  may  perhaps  be  multiplied  by  cuttage, 
there  are  some  which  may  be  more  economically  handled 
by  other  means  such  as  grafting,  budding,  division,  etc. 

For  instance,  certain  varieties  of  apples,  pears,  plums  and  peaches 
readily  strike  root  from  cuttings,  but  the  great  majority  do  not; 
therefore,  the  pome  fruits  are  largely  grafted  and  the  stone  fruits 
budded,  the  most  satisfactory  method  being  chosen  in  each  case. 
In  other  words,  species  differ  in  the  facility  with  which  they  may  be 
propagated  by  cutting,  grafting  or  other  method.  Nothing  but  ex- 
perience with  the  actual  plant  can  decide  the  matter. 

The  term  "cuttage"  is  supposed  to  refer  to  cuttings  of 
the  stem,  except  when  qualified  by  the  name  of  some 
other  part  used ;  as  tuber  cutting,  leaf  cutting,  root  cut- 
ting. By  amateurs  stem  cuttings  are  often  called  "slips." 

Cuttage,  separation  and  division  blend  into  one  another 
almost  imperceptibly,  but  in  cuttage  the  parts  are  sev- 
ered from  the  parent  before  any  roots  are  formed. 

Propagation  by  cuttings  is  a  cheap,  convenient  and 
therefore  very  popular  way  to  secure  new  plants.  Prob- 
ably all  species  of  plants  may  be  propagated  by  one  or 
more  methods  of  cuttage,  using  one  or  another  part,  but 
with  annuals,  biennials  and  many  perennials  some  other 
method  (layerage,  graftage,  seedage,  etc.)  is  often  easier 
and  cheaper.  Even  varieties  differ  in  ability  to  root. 

For  instance,  when  Clothilde  Soupert  rose  was  a  novelty  a  certain 
seedsman  bought  stock  from  which  to  grow  new  plants  for  sale.     He 
gave  orders  to  his  propagators  to  secure  a  certain  number  of  plants, 
95 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


FIG.    86— GARDEN    FLAT    AND    PLANTS    GROWN    IN    IT. 

The  advantage  claimed  for  this  style  of  flat  is  that  when  the  cross  pieces 
and  the  side  are  removed  the  plants  come  out  as  shown  in  2,  each  with  a  ball 
of  earth. 


if  possible.  These  men,  acting  upon  their  experience  with  roses  of 
the  same  class,  calculated  upon  what  appeared  to  them  a  reasonable 
percentage  of  loss  and  made  provision  for  the  required  space  on  that 


CUTTAGE  97 

basis.  But  the  variety  proved  so  much  easier  to  propagate  than  they 
had  thought  that  thousands  more  plants  were  grown  than  had  been 
ordered.  However,  as  the  demand  created  by  good  advertising  was 
greater  than  had  been  counted  upon,  practically  all  were  sold  and  a 
big  profit  made.  Reverse  cases  are  perhaps  more  common. 

139.  Influence  of  climate  on  cuttings. — Climate  has  a 
noticeable  effect  upon  the  rooting  of  cuttings.  In  parts  of 
southern  Europe  and  South  America,  many  plants  which 
can  hardly  be  made  to  strike  root  elsewhere  readily  do 
so.  In  some  of  the  Gulf  states  sweet  potato  vines  may  be 


FIG.    87   -STOCK    PLANTS    OF    CROTON 
New    plants    are    secured    largely    by    Chinese    layers    from    these    plants. 

cut  in  pieces  a  foot  long  and  thrust  into  the  sand  with 
certainty  that  they  will  grow.  In  Texas  hard  wood  cut- 
tings of  quince  and  persimmon  readily  take  root.  Prob- 
ably in  such  cases  the  condition  of  the  soil  also  has  an 
influence,  but  since  similar  soil  in  similar  condition  in 
northern  localities  does  not  produce  similar  results  the 
credit  for  success  must  be  given  to  climate. 

140.  Summer  propagation  of  hardy  plants  in  Minnesota  and  other 
western  states  is  difficult  because  of  the  dry  air.  S.  B.  Green  suc- 
cessfully propagated  hydrangea,  spiraea,  barberry,  Tartarian  honey- 
suckle, and  11  varieties  of  roses  by  stretching  burlap  over  the  beds. 
The  strips  were  not  laid  horizontally  but  inclined  to  the  south  so  the 
northern  edge  was  at  least  one  foot  above  the  bench,  while  the 
southern  edge  rested  directly  on  the  bench.  By  putting  this  shade 
on  about  nine  o'clock  and  leaving  it  on  till  about  five  the  cuttings 


PLANT     PROPAGATION" 


FIG.  88— PROPAGATION  BY  MEANS  OF  CUTTINGS 

1.  Cutting  bench  with  miscellaneous  stock.  2,  sansevieria  cuttings  in  foreground, 
rjbber  plant  in  middle  distance.  3.  Dracaena  cuttings  grown  from  canes  laid 
on  cutting  bench.  4.  Rubber  plants  readv  to  pot  from  the  bench. 


CUTTAGE 


99 


were  kept  from  wilting  in  the  driest  weather.  It  was  also  found 
that  syringing  the  burlap  with  water  increased  the  cooling  effect,  and 
that  comparatively  little  attention  was  necessary  in  watering. 

141.  Rooting  cuttings  in  dry  climates Because  the  relative  hu- 
midity in  dry  climates  is  low,  as  in  parts  of  the  Pacific  Coast  states, 
special  methods  are  necessary  to  make  cuttings  of  certain  plants 
(roses,  for  instance,)  take  root.  Florists  have  had  good  success 
'with  the  following  method:  Hotbeds  with  18  inches  of  fresh  manure 
and  three  inches  of  sand  are  covered  with  glass  beneath  a  frame 
covered  with  burlap  to  provide  shade  and  reduce  air  circulation. 
Only  one  daily  watering  is  usually  necessary.  At  this  time,  the 
sashes  are  raised  one  at  a  time  to  reduce  loss  of  humidity. 


^    JHft-'KL/fKg     tasH 

-J^KuR    Gr*fr 


FIG.    89— RED    RASPBERRY    SUCKER    PLANTS 
new    plants    develop    from    roots    and    the    attempts    made    by    the 


142.  Cuttings  require  a  moist  air  of  proper  tempera- 
ture and  sometimes  bottom  heat  (132).  This  general 
statement  applies  with  special  force  to  cuttings  and 
growing  parts.  Heat  and  humidity  must  be  carefully 
regulated  to  suit  the  species  or  variety  of  plant  being 
propagated,  because  the  demands  of  each  vary  more  or 


100 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


less.     Many  devices,  some  of  them  very  simple,  have 
been  adopted  for  regulating  both  heat  and  moisture. 

143.  Moisture  regulation  is  accomplished  usually  by 
propagating  frames  and  boxes  of  various  forms,  the  com- 
monest being  that  of  a  hotbed  but  smaller.  In  all  the 
principle  is  that  of  confining  the  air.  In  a  small  way  a 
flower  pot  or  a  flat  may  be  inverted  over  the  cuttings, 
(Fig.  32)  or  a  pane  of  glass  (Fig.  32)  or  a  bell  jar  placed 
above  them.  By  tilting  these  more  or  less  the  humidity 


\  "*^N«r  -.AA**.  ^ 


-,\  ««k\£ 


FIG.    90— METHOD    OF    POTTING 


1.  Right  hand  partially  filling  s 
2.  Ready    to    plant.     3.  Filling    pot. 


>il  into  pot,  left  hand  seizing  rooted  cutting. 
4.  Finishing. 


and  the  circulation  of  air  may  be  easily  regulated.    What- 
ever is  used  should  admit  light  in  varying  degree. 

144.  Callus,  the  new  formation  of  cells  upon  an  injured 
surface ;  for  instance,  at  the  lower  end  of  a  stem  cutting, 
or  the  cut  surface  of  a  layer  or  of  a  root  graft. 

145.  Stock    plants    are    grown    in    greenhouses    and 
nurseries  merely  to  supply  cuttings,  cions,  layers,  or  buds 
for  propagation. 

146.  "Blind  eyes"  are  shoots  which  do  not  produce 
flowers.     They  are  common  on  roses  and  some  other 


CUTTAGE  101 

plants  grown  under  glass.     Many  propagators  think  they 
will  produce  flowerless  plants. 

147.  Blind  vs.  flowering  wood.— L.  C.  Corbett  tested  this  belief 
that  "blind  wood,"  is  inferior  to  "flower  wood"  in  the  propagation  of 
roses.     Each  year  for  five  years  wood  was  selected  respectively  from 
these  two  classes  of  shoots  to  test  the  cumulative  effect  of  prop- 
agation through  a  series  of  years.     As  to  rooting  ability  and  growth, 
little  difference  was  noticed.     During  the   first  year  the  flowering 
wood  plants  produce  156  per  cent  more  flowers  than  plants  prop- 
agated from  blind  wood,  but  during  the  next  two  years  the  per- 
centage decreased  instead  of  increased.     The  percentage  of  flowers 
on  the  latter  also  decreased,  but  not  in  so  great  proportion.     As  a 
result  of  these  experiments  the  author  concludes  that  where  bloom 
rather  than  stock  plants  is  desired,  the  flowering  wood  is  decidedly 
the  better,  but  the  cumulative  effect  of  propagating  roses  from  one 
or  the  other  year  after  year  is  not  marked. 

148.  Suckers  are  leafy  shoots  produced  from  adven- 
titious buds  on  the  underground  parts  of  plants. 

The  term  is  sometimes  applied  (1)  to  aerial  roots  or 
holdfasts  of  orchids  and  other  epiphytal  plants  and  (2) 
to  shoots  which  sprout  from  the  trunk.  Properly,  how- 
ever, these  last  are  water  sprouts  (149).  Suckers  often 
follow  injuries  by  bugs,  tools,  etc.,  to  the  roots,  also 
from  weakness  or  decrepitude  in  the  tree  head,  or  be- 
cause of  excess  of  plant  food  at  the  point  whence  they 
arise.  All  plants  that  produce  them  may  be  easily  prop- 
agated by  cuttings  of  the  producing  parts. 

For  instance,  certain  kinds  of  plum  and  cherry  stocks  must  be 
carefully  handled  to  prevent  sucker  formation ;  but  for  plant  prop- 
agation the  stools  of  blackberries,  red  raspberries,  etc.,  are  often 
severely  root  pruned  by  thrusting  a  sharp  spade  full  depth  of  the 
blade  into  the  soil  around  the  plant  so  as  to  cut  the  roots  six  or 
eight  inches  from  the  stool  and  again  farther  out.  Every  cut  piece 
will  produce  a  plant.  Instead  of  using  a  spade  the  stools  are  often 
removed  and  the  ground  deeply  cut  with  a  disk  harrow  run  in  two 
directions  at  right  angles  across  the  field.  See  Root  Cuttings  (162). 

149.  Water  sprouts  are  shoots  or  limbs  of  one  season's 
growth  produced  from  latent  or  adventitious  buds  on 
trunks   and  branches   of  well-established  trees,   mainly 
near   where    limbs    have    been  .removed.     See    Suckers 
(148). 


102 


PLANT     PROPAGATION" 


Both  water  sprouts  and  suckers  commonly  follow  over- 
pruning.  They  show  an  undesirable  loss  of  balance 
between  root  system  and  top.  In  cold  climates  water 
sprouts  often  winterkill.  Therefore,  they  are  best  re- 
moved promptly  and  with  clean  cuts.  Where  practical, 
careful  root  pruning  will  tend  to  overcome  this  condition. 
150.  Origin  of  roots  in  cuttings. — In  making  stem  cut- 
tings the  usual  practice  is  to  "cut  to  a  node" ;  i.  e.,  stems 
are  cut  just  below  buds.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  with 

most  plants  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  cuttings  will 
"strike  root"  than  if  the 
cuts  are  made  farther 
away  from  the  nodes. 
True  buds  of  themselves, 
however,  exercise  no  in- 
fluence in  the  production 
of  roots,  for  if  buried  in 
the  earth  or  other  me- 
dium, they  do  not  grow. 
The  reason  roots  form 
best  near  the  nodes  is 
believed  to  be  that  stem 
tissues  at  such  points  are 
richer  in  plant  food  stored 
there  to  assist  the 
bud  should  it  start 
growth.  While  many 
stems  made  into  cuttings 
will  root  at  any  point,  it  is  a  rule  that  roots  arise  most 
freely  at  or  very  near  the  bases  of  the  cuttings,  whether 
"cut  to  a  node"  or  not.' 

Root  origin  is  always  in  adventitious  buds,  usually 
formed  beneath  the  bark  or  the  callus,  but  always  in  the 
primary  (meristematic)  tissue,  the  center  of  the  cambium 
layer.  This  tissue  is  composed  of  undifferentiated  cells. 
Adventitious  buds  may  develop  in  any  part  of  a  plant 


i.  Grape   cuttings   showing  callus, 
showing   roots. 


CUTTAGE 


103 


where  there  is  an  epidermis  with  primary  tissue  beneath. 
The  change  which  leads  to  the  formation  of  adventitious 
buds  always  follows  an  unusual  condition  of  plant  growth 


FIG.   92— ODD   WAYS   OF   STARTING    CUTTINGS 

1.     Short     geranium     cutting     rooted.     2.     Cactus     cutting     rooted.     Both     cuttings 
fastened  to  toothpicks. 

such  as  insufficient  assimilation  of  elaborated  food  by  the 
plant  or  an  injury  of  some  kind. 

Thus  adventitious  buds  may  be  called  emergency  buds, 
because  they  seek  to  preserve  the  pla^t  when  endangered. 
This  orovision  of  nature  has  given  rise  to  many  of  the 


104 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


asexual  methods  of  plant  propagation  (cuttings,  layers, 
etc.).  Buds  formed  at  the  bases  of  stem  cuttings  readily 
push  through  the  callus,  but  often  roots  push  through 
the  epidermis,  even  high  above  this  point. 

151.  Buds  are  of  two  general  kinds,  true  or  normal  and 
adventitious.     A   true   bud,  sometimes  called  a  "brood 
body,"  is  a  growing  point  in  normal  position  on  a  stem. 
It  may  develop  into  leaf,  flower  branch,  cluster  of  leaves, 
or  of  flowers,  or  of  both  leaves  and  flowers. 

152.  Adventitious  buds  are  developed  at  unexpected 
points  from  certain  cells  in  the  cambium  layer  in  roots, 
stems,  or  leaves.    Under  favorable  conditions  any  of  these 


FIG.  93— PACKING   FOR    SHIPMENT 
1.  Mail    order    method.      2.  Express    package. 


CUTTAGE  105 

cells  may  develop  buds  which  may  develop  into  either 
roots  or  sprouts,  according  to  their  position  or  the  neces- 
sity of  the  case.  Familiar  examples  on  roots  are  red 
raspberry  and  blackberry ;  on  stems,  pome  and  stone 
fruits ;  on  leaves,  bryophyllum. 

153.  Leaf  buds  are  undeveloped  branches  bearing  rudi- 
mentary leaves  specially  modified  for  protection.  They 
develop  into  branches,  which  under  favorable  conditions 


FIG.  94— TILE  BOTTOMED  GREENHOUSE  BENCH 

This   is  one   of  the   best  styles  of  bench   bottom — because   so   well  drained   and   so 
lasting. 

of  growth,  mature  other  buds  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves 
and  usually  one  or  more  at  the  extremities.  Flower  buds 
develop  one  flower  or  several,  with  or  without  leaves. 
As  to  position,  buds  are  lateral,  axillary,  etc. 

154.  Latent  buds  are  normal  buds  in  normal  positions 
but  dormant  beyond  the  usual  time  (a  month,  a  year  or 
more).  •  They  are  called  into  growth  by  some  peculiar 
stimulus.  Many  of  the  buds  on  the  lower  third  or  more 
of  the  annual  growth  of  trees  and  shrubs  become  latent 
during  the  second  year  but  start  growing  if  the  upper 


IO6  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

part  is  cut  off.  Lateral  buds  are  situated  on  the  sides  of 
branches,  usually  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  A  terminal 
bud  is  situated  at  the  extremity  of  a  branch  or  stem. 
Usually  only  one  is  in  this  position,  but  sometimes  (lilac) 
there  are  two  or  even  more.  Axillary  buds  are  produced 
in  the  axils  of  leaves. 

155.  Roots  on  stem  cuttings  form  on  the  end  normally 
nearest  the  root  of  the  parent  plant.     Stems  appear  on 
the  other  end.     Botanists  call  this  phenomenon  polarity. 
With  root  cuttings  the  plan  holds  good;  the  end  nor- 
mally nearest  the  top  of  the  plant  will  produce  a  stem, 
and  that  farthest  away,  roots.    Some  species  may  be  com- 
pelled to  take  root  when  reversed  but  growth  is  puny 
and  of  short  life.     If  horse-radish  cuttings  are  inverted, 
they  will  start  late,  roots  from  the  "root"  end  and  stems 
from  the  "stem"   end,  but  the   resulting  roots   will   be 
small,    irregular    and    unsalable.       Hence    horse-radish 
growers  generally  cut  the  upper  ends  of  their  cuttings 
square  across,  and  the  lower  ends  oblique  so  the  planters 
may  see  which  end  should  be  placed  uppermost. 

156.  Shipping  cuttings  and  plants.    Plants  require  fresh 
air  just  as  animals  do.     If  seeds,  bulbs  and  plants  are 
packed  moist  in  air-tight  boxes,  they  may  be  asphyxiated 
or  may  perish  through  putrefaction.    Growing  plants  will 
live  a  considerable  time  without  light  if  they  can  get 
fresh  air  and  if  light  and  air  are  good  they  will  stand  a 
rather  wide  range  of  temperature.     The  best  method  to 
pack  many  plants  is  to  knock  them  out  of  their  pots  and 
roll  the  earth  balls  in  oiled  paper,  tied  above  and  below. 
They  may  then  be  packed  tightly  and  upright  with  a  lit- 
tle wet  moss  between  the  balls  in  wooden  boxes  deep 
enough  to  protect  the  tops.    Across  the  tops  of  the  balls 
between  the  rows,  strips  of  batten  should  be  placed  and 
nailed  through  the  sides  of  the  boxes.     Perforated  zinc  on 
top  of  the  boxes  held  down  by  battens  may  be  placed 
for   long-distance   shipments.      Finally     the   boxes   should 
be  labeled  "Living  plants,     Keep  cool.     This  side  up." 


CUTTAGE 


107 


If  to  be  sent  by  sea,  the  further  caution  is  necessary 
"Keep  away  from  salt  water."  Plants  so  packed  may  be 
sent  half  around  the  world.  On  arrival,  especially  if  dry, 
they  should  be  soaked,  root  and  top,  for  a  day  or  two 
before  being  planted.  If  woody  plants  are  badly  dried 
they  may  be  buried  in  moist  earth  for  a  week  to  a  month 
with  fair  prospects  of  reviving. 

157.  Media  used  for  rooting  cuttings  have  great  in- 
fluence upon  the  regulation  of  both  moisture  and  tem- 
perature, especially  the  former.  They  should  be  porous  so 
excess  water  will  readily  drain 
away ;  second,  be  retentive  of  cap- 
illary water  so  there  will  always  be 
moisture  enough  to  supply  the  cut- 
tings with  all  they  need  while 
callusing  and  making  roots ;  third, 
they  must  not  bake  or  crust  after 
watering.  For  outdoor  work  a 
well-drained  light,  sandy  loam  of 
moderate  richness  usually  gives 
best  results ;  heavy  soil  and  muck 
poorest.  For  indoor  use,  sphag- 
num moss,  cocoanut  fiber  and 
specially  prepared  soils  are  all  used 
to  some  extent,  but  the  great  ma- 
terial is  river  or  builders'  sand.  The  grade  used  should  be 
sharp,  clean  and  as  free  as  possible  from  organic  matter. 
If  the  greater  portion  will  pass  through  a  sieve  of  eight 
meshes  to  the  inch,  but  not  through  one  of  say  25,  the 
range  will  be  about  right.  Some  propagators  prefer 
sand  near  the  coarse  limit  of  this  range,  some  near  the 
fine  limit.  To  prevent  damping-ofT  (78)  and  other 
troubles  the  sand  should  either  be  sterilized  (80)  or 
freshly  dug  from  a  deep  pit  so  as  to  be  as  free  as  possible 
from  organic  matter. 

Whatever  material  is  used  the  container  must  be  well 
drained.     When  cutting  benches  have  bottoms  of  small 


FIG.  95— DOUBLE  POT  OF 
CUTTINGS 


IO8  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

tile  (Fig.  94),  enough  drainage  is  provided  between  the 
tiles;  but  with  wooden  benches  it  is  often  necessary  to 
bore  holes  in  the  boards  and  to  protect  these  with  pieces 
of  flower  pot  or  to  stuff  sphagnum  moss  loosely  into 
them  and  the  larger  cracks  between  the  boards.  Other- 
wise too  much  sand  will  wash  down  and  be  lost  and  the 
cuttings  may  suffer. 

For  best  results,  water  in  media  for  rooting  cuttings,  as 
in  soil  for  crops,  should  be  in  the  form  of  thin  films 
around  soil  or  sand  particles.    The  finer  the  particles  the 
larger  the  quantity  of  water  that  may  be 
held  and  usually  the  harder  will  the  soil 
pack — both  undesirable  in  a  cutting  bed. 
____  The  familiar  example  to  illustrate  the  for- 

*FIG  96—  ^       mer  Pomt  is  of  a  cube.    This  has  six  sides, 

VENTILATED         ^Ut   CUt    ^    ^^  t^G    ^U^   ^as    nOt   keen    ^-n~ 

CUTTING   POT    creased  though  two  new  surfaces  have  been 
added  and  the  possible  film  area  thus  in- 
creased one-third.  Repeated  sub-division  thus  increases 
the  surface  area  without  increasing  the  bulk.  Hence  the 
high  water-holding  capacity  of  fine  sand  and  soil. 

158.  Double  pots  are  often  used  for  small  lots  of  cut- 
tings  because   of  their   convenience    (Fig.    95).     In   a 
large  pot  is  placed  a  liberal  handful  of  "crocks"   (91), 
clinkers  or  other  drainage  material.     Sand  is  added  to 
a  depth  sufficient  to  admit  a  small  pot  set  upon  it  so  the 
rims  of  both  pots  are  on  a  level.    The  drainage  hole  of 
the  smaller  pot  is  plugged  so  no  water  can  escape,  except 
by  seepage  through  the  sides  or  by  evaporation.     After 
adjusting  the  smaller,  sand  is  placed  between  the  two 
pots,  the  smaller  filled  with  water  and  cuttings  stuck  in 
the  sand  for  rooting.     The  water  in  the  little  reservoir 
seeps  out  and  keeps  the  sand  moist  but  never  too  wet  for 
the  cuttings.     Scarcely  more  attention  is  needed  than  to 
keep  the  little  pot  full  of  water. 

159.  Shading,  especially  of  newly  made  greenwood  and 
leaf  cuttings,  is  essential  to  success  because  the  moisture 


in  the  cuttings  themselves  must  not  be  greatly  de- 
pleted. This  would  be  the  case  were  all  the  leaf  surface 
allowed  to  remain  or  that  retained  exposed  to  free  cir- 
culation of  air,  moist  though  that  of  the  propagating 
house  may  be.  The  usual  plan  is  to  cover  cuttings 
or  frames  containing  them  with  newspaper  (Fig.  18). 
Factory  cotton  and  cheesecloth  are  also  used  more  or 
less  (Fig.  15).  These  materials  are  all  placed  where  the 
sun  strikes  the  beds. 

160.  Screens  for  seedlings  are  perhaps  best  made  by  a  picket 
machine  which  binds  builders'  lath  with  woven  strands  of  wire. 
These  screens  are  quicker  made,  cheaper,  more  flexible,  durable 
and  easier  handled  than  those  nailed  together. 


110 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


FIG.     97— NURSERY    BEDS 

1.  Hand  forking  the  soil  is  generally  necessary  because  the  beds  are  narrow. 
2.  Right  and  wrong  method  of  weeding.  The  man  on  the  right  has  his  foot 
in  the  bed. 


SJ 


CHAPTER  IX 
CLASSES  OF  CUTTINGS 

161.  Plant  parts  to  use. — Cuttings  may  be  made  from 
any  plant  part  that  has  a  primary  tissue   (meristem). 
They  may  be  divided  into  four  groups,  dependent  upon 
the  parts  used:     1,  Roots;  2,  root-stocks  and  tubers;  3, 
stems ;  4,  leaves.     As  in  all  other  kinds  of  asexual  propa- 
gation, cuttings  reproduce  the  same  variety  as  the  parent 
plants     from  which     taken,     bud  variations  or  "sports" 
excepted. 

162.  Root  cuttings  may  be  made  from  true  roots  of  any 
plant  species  which  naturally  produce  suckers    (osage, 
orange,  poplar,     willow, 

red  raspberry,  trumpet 
creeper,  dracaena,  horse- 
radish, plumbago,  bou- 
vardia).  The  roots  are 
cut  in  pieces  usually 
three  inches  long,  either 
stored  in  moist  moss  or 
sawdust  or  placed  di- 
rectly in  the  propagating 
bed.  With  most  cool 
climate  plants  the  rooting  is  done  out  of  doors  without 
artificial  heat ;  with  warm  climate  subjects  bottom  heat 
in  greenhouse  or  hotbed  is  required.  Plants  in  the  former 
group  are  often  handled  with  bottom  heat  to  get  best 
results  or  shorten  time. 

Blackberries  and  red  raspberries,  especially  when  stock  is 
scarce,  are  often  increased  commercially  by  root  cuttings  (Fig  98). 
Roots  one-fourth  inch  or  even  smaller  in  diameter  are  dug  in 
fall,  cut  in  pieces  one  to  three  inches  long,  packed  in  green  saw- 
dust or  moist  sand,  stored  in  a  cold  but  frost  proof  cellar  till 
spring  and  the  callused  ones  then  planted  like  peas,  not  closer  than 
an  inch  asunder  in  furrows  wide  enough  apart  for  horse  cultiva- 
tion. They  make  salable  plants  by  fall.  When  an  extra  demand 
111 


FIG.    98— BLACKBERRY    PLANTS 
A,    root-cutting    plant;    B,    sucker    plant. 


112  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

is  expected  the  cuttings  are  sometimes  started  in  heated  propa- 
gating beds  in  fall  so  plants  may  be  ready  for  sale  in  spring. 
In  the  South  they  are  often  made  in  spring  and  planted  in  the  open. 

Pear,  apple,  cherry  and  peach  root  cuttings  may  be 
grown  in  frames  with  bottom  heat,  but  this  method  has 
never  been  very  popular  with  nurserymen  because  graft- 
age  (192)  is  considered  more  economical. 

Root  cuttings  are  open  to  the  objection  that  they  do 
not  always  transmit  variegation 
though  they  do  perpetuate  the  va- 
riety otherwise.  It  must  also  be  re- 
membered that  the  root  will  propa- 
gate its  variety ;  that  is,  if  roots  of 
a  grafted  plant  be  selected,  those 

F1G.99-CUTT.NG  taken     fr°™     bel?W     the     ^^n     will 

READY  FOR  BURYING       produce        seedling-stock        plants, 
while   those   above   that  point   will 
grow  plants  of  the  cion  variety. 

163.  A  sport  or  bud  variation  is  a  plant  or  plant  part, 
as  a  twig,  which  unexpectedly  shows  a  character  differ- 
ent from  that  of  the  variety  or  species  or  the  balance  of 
the  plant.     Usually  this  character  cannot  be  reproduced 
by  seed  but  is  almost  always  propagated  asexually.    Even 
then  it  is  still  called  a  sport.     The  term  is  not  commonly 
applied  to  monstrosities  or  deformities,  but  to  more  or 
less  attractive   and   apparently    normal    characters,    as 
doubling  of  flowers  on  single-flowered  plants,  variega- 
tion and  other  changes  of  the  color  on  green  plants,  etc. 
Bud  variations  may  be  the  starting  point  of  new  varieties 
or  of  reversions  to  earlier  forms. 

164.  Tubers  and  tuber  cuttings,  because  of  their  food 
content,  can  live  long  after  growth  starts  before  the  new 
plants  may  be  able  to  take  food  from  the  soil.     In  potato 
plant  formation  the  eye  sends  a  shoot  through  the  soil  to  air 
and, light.    Then  roots  begin  to  form  near  the  base  of  the 
shoot.    These  roots  secure  food  though  the  plantlet  con- 
tinues to  draw  upon  the  food  stored  in  the  tuber.     In 


CLASSES  OF  CUTTINGS  113 

time  special  shoots  emerge  from  the  stems,  extend  short 
distances  and  later  thicken  to  form  tubers.  For  com- 
mercial planting,  Irish  potato  tubers  are  usually  cut  in 
pieces,  each  containing  at  least  one  eye  or  bud.  If  cut 
through  an  eye  each  half  eye  may  produce  a  shoot  and  be 
somewhat  earlier  than  the  other  eyes  in  the  same  piece. 
Cuttings  are  often  slightly  dried  and  allowed  to  sprout 
in  the  light,  which  produces  short  purple  shoots  (Fig.  73) 


FIG.    100— TRANSPLANTING    MACHINE    IN    OPERATION 

The  boys  place  plants  alternately  between  a  pair  of  jaws  which  open  at 
regulated  intervals,  close  and  set  the  plants  in  the  soil.  Each  plant  may  be 
watered  at  the  same  time. 

that  develop  more  rapidly  than  do  unsprouted  eyes. 
They  apparently  do  not  rob  the  tubers  of  plant  food  as  do 
the  white  shoots  formed  in  the  dark. 

Irish  potato  tuber  cuttings,  each  piece  including  at 
least  one  "eye,"  are  dropped  in  the  ground  and  allowed 
to  take  their  course.  Much  discussion  has  arisen  as  to  the 
proper  size  of  piece.  Experiment  in  many  states  and 
under  numerous  soil  and  other  cultural  conditions  seems 
to  favor  moderate-sized  tubers  and  cuttings  rather  than 
over-sjzed  ones  and  single  eye  pieces. 


1 14  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

Since  the  sweet  potato  is  a  true  root  and  therefore 
without  buds  it  produces  sprouts  from  adventitious  buds 
most  abundantly,  as  a  rule,  at  the  stem  end.  The  shoots 
take  root  as  do  those  of  Irish  potato,  but  roots  may  also 
develop  from  the  potato  itself.  The  sprouts  are  "slipped" 
off  with  roots  attached  and  planted  in  rows  by  hand  or 
with  transplanting  machines  (Fig.  100).  Should  they  not 
have  roots  at  the  time  of  planting,  they  soon  overcome 
this  apparent  handicap  in  favorable  soil.  Sweet  potato 
propagating  beds  are  either  mildly  warmed  manure  hotbeds 
or  heated  by  flues  (Fig.  72)  in  permanent  beds. 

Stem  cuttings  of  certain  tuber-bear- 
ing plants  (potato)  do  not  develop  new 
plants,  but  tubers  either  at  the  bases 
of  cuttings  or  in  the  axils  of  leaves 
above  ground.  New  plants  will  devel- 
op from  these  tubers.  Leaf  cuttings 
of  some  kinds  also  do  this. 

165.  Rhizome  cuttings,  made     from 
underground  stems      (achillea,  canna, 
rhubarb),     are  treated  like  tuber  cut- 
tings.      Two  bad  weeds  accidentally 
propagated  in  this     way     are     quack 
grass    and    perennial    morning    glory 
(bindweed),   every  joint   of   which   is 
capable  of  producing  a  new  plant. 

166.  Stern  cuttings     are     of     three 
kinds :      1,    dormant,   ripe,   mature   or 
hardwood ;     2,   green,   immature,   soft 
wood  or  succulent;   and  3,   an   inter- 
mediate class,  semi-hardwood. 

167.  Styles  of  mature  cuttings.  Ma- 
FIG.   101- CARNATION   ture  wood  cuttings  may  be  made  of  any 

length,  but  6  to  10  inches  is  the  usual 

!'  2.eVRoo™d  e>         range  for  those  with  more  than  one 

bud.     With  perhaps   the  majority  of 

species   so   propagated,   two   nodes    and   one    internode 


CLASSES  OF  CUTTINGS  115 

are  preferred,  though  with  short-jointed  plants 
such  as  Delaware  grape,  currant  and  plum, 
several  nodes  may  be  used,  in  which  case  all  but 
the  top  bud  or  buds — those  above  or  at  the  surface  of  the 
soil — are  cut  or  rubbed  off  to  prevent  the  formation  of 
shoots  from  below  ground.  Satisfactory  growth  of  cut- 
tings does  not  depend  on  number  of  buds ;  single  buds 
in  many  species  give  as  good  results  as  when  several  are 
used.  In  the  cutting  bed  all  long  mature  wood  cuttings 
are  set  vertically  with  a  bud  or  two  above  the  surface. 
168.  Single  eye  mature  wood  cuttings  are  often  made 


FIG.    102— ODD    WAYS    OF    STARTING    PLANTS    FROM    CUTTINGS 


1.  Sectional    leaf    cuttir 
3.  Cactus  cutting   fastened 


of    begonia.      2.    "Whole    leaf"    cutting    of   begonis 
toothpick  to   be  kept  steady  in   cutting  bench. 


when  stock  is  scarce  or  costly  in  two  popular  ways.  In 
the  first  case  the  wood  is  cut  half  way  between 
nodes,  the  cuttings  laid  flat  with  eyes  upward  in  the  cut- 
ting bed  and  covered  with  an  inch  or  so  of  soil.  In  the 
other  style  cuts  are  made,  one  a  little  above  the  bud  and 
the  other  a  couple  of  inches  below.  These  cuttings  are 
thrust  vertically  in  the  bed  as  far  down  as  the  buds.  In 
each  case  the  cuttings  are  generally  started  with  bottom 
heat  under  glass  about  three  months  before  work  could  be 
done  out  of  doors.  From  the  start  the  sand  must  be  kept 
moist.  Shading  is  often  necessary.  When  the  leaves  ex- 


n6 


PLANT     PROPAGATION 


pand,  sprinkling-  must  be  frequent  to  prevent  wilting. 
In  four  to  six  weeks  the  plants  may  be  potted.  Species, 
variety,  season  and  locality,  all  influence  results. 

169.  Mature  wood  cuttings  may  be  made  at  any  time. 
With  plants  growing  in  the  open  the  great  majority  are 
made  for  planting  in  spring.  Many  of  these  are  cut 
only  a  short  time  before  being  planted ;  many  more  are 
cut  in  fall  and  stored  over  winter  in  bundles  buried  in  a 
well-drained  sandy  knoll,  or  stored 
until  spring  under  cover  in  moist 
soil,  sand,  sawdust  or  moss. 

The  chief  advantages  of  the  last- 
named  plan  are  that  the  bases  callus 
over  before  planting  time  and  pos- 
sible winter  injury  is  avoided.  Oc- 
casionally (currant,  gooseberry) 
cuttings  are  made  as  soon  as  the 
wood  is  mature  and  the  leaves  begin 
to  fall.  They  are  then  callused  and  fall 
planted,  thus  gaining  a  good  deal  of 
time.  Winter  mulching  of  fall-set 
cutting  beds  is  essential  to  success, 
because  heaving  and  settling  of  soil 
under  alternate  freezing  and  thaw- 
ing break  the  tender  roots. 

With  short-jointed    plants,    little 
care  is  taken  to  cut  the  lower  end 
FIG.  103—  to  a  bud,  but  with  long-jointed  ones 

GOOSEBERRY   CUTTINGS  best  results  follow  cutting  just  be- 
low  nodes.    It  has  also  been  noticed 

that  grape  cuttings  with  more  than  two  buds 
give  better  root  systems  than  do  those  with  two  buds  or 
only  one,  since  roots  are  developed  at  each  buried  node. 
Only  the  top  bud  is  left  to  produce  a  stem,  the  others 
being  rubbed  off.  Long,  mature  wood  cuttings  are 
usually  set  obliquely  in  the  cutting  bed  so  as  not  to  be 
too  deeply  covered.  Another  advantage  of  this  is  that 


CLASSES  OF   CUTTINGS 


117 


in  poorly  drained  soil  and  in  cold,  wet  seasons  roots  will 
form  better  than  if  cuttings  are  set  vertically.  Hence 
grape  cuttings  with  two  buried  nodes  usually  make  better 
plants  than  those  with  only  one  bud  buried. 


FIG.  104— STUDENTS  IN  THE  PENNSYLVANIA  STATE  COLLEGE  GREENHOUSE 

1.  Each  student  has  his  own  bench  space  where  he  does  "head  house"  work. 
2.  In  the  forcing  house  each  one  has  his  own  beds  to  tend.  The  boys  are 
working  on  radishes. 


Ilg  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

170.  Evergreen  mature  wood  cuttings,  especially  of  cone-bearing 
plants  (arbor  vitae,  juniper  and  retinospora)  are  fall  planted 
under  cover  in  sand  either  in  a  cool  greenhouse  or  some  other 
cover.  Usually  they  take  root  slowly,  sometimes  a  full  year  (yew, 
juniper),  but  continue  green  if  properly  shaded  and  watered.  After 
rooting  they  may  remain  in  the  flats  till  the  following  season  for 
out-of-door  planting  or  may  be  potted.  The  cuttings,  usually  four 
or  five  inches  long,  are  always  made  of  well-ripened  wood  some- 
times two,  three  or  even  four  years  old.  The  needles  or  leaves  are 
cut  from  the  lower  two-thirds  of  the  stem  with  a  sharp  knife.  They 
should  never  be  pulled  or  rubbed  off.  Remaining  leaves  are  not 
covered  with  soil.  Probably  all  cone-bearing  trees  may  be  prop- 
agated by  cuttings.  It  is  not,  however,  profitable  to  grow  pine  this 
way;  seed  is  cheaper.  Spruce  cuttings  are  very  slow  to  root  (12 
to  18  months)  so  fine  varieties  are  generally  grafted. 


FIG.   105— CALLUSING  BED  FOR  CUTTINGS  AND  ROOT  GRAFTS 

In  this  the  bundles  of  grafts   and  cuttings   are   placed   in    fall   or  winter  for  spring 

planting. 

171.  Hose  cuttings  of  dormant  wood  are  largely  used  both  out 
of  doors  and  under  glass.     When  to  be  grown  out  of  doors  the 
cuttings  are  made  about  six  inches  long  from  mature  wood  in  the 
fall  before  severe  freezing  weather  comes.     Bundles  are  stored  in 
sand  over  winter  and  planted  in  spring  in  V-shaped  trenches  with 
only  one  bud  showing.  Rich  soil  produces  strong  plants  in  one  sea- 
son.    When  grown  under  glass  the  cuttings  are  made  in  November 
or  December  and  planted  in  sand  in  cold  frames  or  cool  greenhouses. 
By  February  or  March  they  may  be  potted.     When  warm  weather 
arrives  they  are  planted  in  rich  soil. 

172.  Ringing  roses  to  facilitate  cuttings  propagation  was  done 
experimentally  by  Greiner,  a  French  investigator,  who  found  that 
such  cuttings  strike  root  much  more  readily  than  do  ordinary  ones. 
The  stems  of  the  parent  plants  were  ringed  in  July  or  August.    By 
November  the  wounds  had  callused.     The  method  is  recommended 
for  varieties  difficult  to  propagate  by  ordinary  cuttings.     Several 
rings  made  at  proper  distances  apart  to  get  right-sized  cuttings  may 
be  made  on  the  same  branch. 

173.  Cuttings  from  grafted  grapes. — F.  Baco,  a  French  investiga- 
tor, has  proved  that  with  certain  varieties  of  grapes  used  as  cions, 


CLASSES  OF  CUTTINGS 


119 


grafting  not  only  causes  specific  variations  but  that  these  varia- 
tions may  be  perpetuated  by  cuttings.  Variations  in  the  vegetative 
parts  also  seem  to  be  accompanied  by  variations  in  the  root  system. 

174.  Browning  of  grape  cuttings  is  due  to  bacteria  and  is  con- 
sidered a  disease,  but  P.  Viala  and  L.  Ravaz,  French  investigators, 
say  it  is  without  pathological  effect.     Externally  the   cuttings  re- 
tain   their   normal   color   and  when   grafted   readily   make   unions. 
They  root  well  and  produce  vigorous  branches.     The  bacteria  are 
never  found  in   the  new  growth  no  matter  how  abundant  in  the 
cuttings,  nor  do  they  descend  into  the  stock  in  case  of  grafting. 

175.  Dwarf  plants  from  cuttings. — In  France  cuttings  taken  from 
the  tips  of  branches  of  plants  which  have  reached  full  development 
but  have  not  produced  flowers,  will  take  root  under  proper  condi- 
tions and  produce  flowers  without  much  further  growth.     If  the 


FIG.    106— PLAN   OF   CALLUSING   BED 
Notice   the   position   of  the   bundles.     They   form   calluses   best  when   set  upright. 

plants  to  be  dwarfed  produce  both  terminal  and  axillary  flowers, 
the  cuttings  should  be  taken  from  the  least-developed  flower 
branches.  The  cuttings  should  be  made  about  an  inch  under  a 
node  in  each  case.  Chrysanthemums,  asters,  roses,  and  several 
greenhouse  plants  have  been  thus  dwarfed. 

176.  Callus  pits  (Fig.  106)  are  excavations  in  which 
cuttings  are  buried  for  a  few  weeks  or  months  prior  to 
planting.  They  must  be  made  on  well-drained  knolls 
fully  exposed  to  the  sun  so  the  greatest  possible  use  may 


I2O 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


be  made  of  natural  bottom  heat.  For  short  periods  in 
fall  and  spring,  bundles  of  cuttings  are  buried  upright 
with  their  butt  ends  upward  to  hasten  callusing.  Depth 
will  be  governed  by  length  of  cuttings  and  season ;  a 
covering  of  two  to  six  inches  of  sand  or  friable  soil  is 
enough.  Because  the  upper  ends  of  cuttings  are  placed 
downward  the  buds  are  kept  cooler  than  the  butt  ends 


FIG.    107— STAND    FOR   MAKING    GRAFT   AND    CUTTING    BUNDLES 

The    tier   around    each    stem   shows    where    the    graft    has    been    made.      When 
the  rack  is  full  the  loose  raffia  is  brought  up  and  tied  around  the  bundle. 

and,  therefore,  do  not  sprout  even  under  fairly  favorable 
conditions  for  starting  growth. 

Fall-callused  cuttings  may  be  dug  up  and  stored  in 
cellars  over  winter.  Fresh  hardwood  sawdust  from  green 
wood  is  considered  the  best  material  in  which  to  store 
mature  wood  cuttings  because  it  has  just  the  right 
humidity  and  retains  moisture  so  well ;  watering  is  rarely 
necessary.  The  storage  room  must  be  kept  cold  but 
above  freezing  point.  If  warm  the  packing  material  may 
dry  out  rapidly.  Watering  may  cause  cuttings  to  heat 


CLASSES  OF  CUTTINGS 


121 


and  sprout  long  before  they  could  be  planted  in  spring. 
Hence  there  would  be  loss. 

177.  Burying  hardwood  cuttings  bottom  end  upwards 
from  a  few  days  to  a  few  weeks  in  spring  before  setting  in 
the  cutting  bed  takes  advantage  of  heat  in  the  upper 
layers  of  soil.  It  is  of  particular  advantage  with  cuttings 
slow  to  take  root ;  for  instance,  certain  varieties  of  grapes, 
such  as  Norton  and  Delaware.  Usually,  for  convenience 
in  handling,  the  cuttings  are  tied  in  bundles  (Fig.  107)  of 


„£• 


FIG.    108— ROOT    AND    BULB   STORAGE    CELLAR   ON    A    HILLSIDE 

Shelves    are    used    for    such    plants    as    cannas,    dahlias,    gladiolus,    placed    in 
boxes.      Potatoes    and   other   roots   are   generally   stored   in   piles   or   bins. 

100  and  buried  tops  downward  in  a  sandy  knoll  fully  ex- 
posed to  the  sun  and  only  two  or  three  inches  deep. 
Often  frames  are  used  (Fig.  106).  Sometimes  cuttings 
are  so  treated  in  fall  and  taken  up  for  cellar  storage  when 
the  ground  begins  to  freeze  hard;  sometimes  they  are 
stored  without  this  previous  treatment,  but  buried  in 
spring  for  a  few  weeks  before  planting.  Hardwood 
cuttings  grown  out  of  doors  do  best  when  of  medium 
(six  or  eight  inches)  rather  than  extreme  length  because 
they  are  warmer  from  the  natural  bottom  heat. 

178.  Semi-hardwood  cuttings,  those  of  nearly  mature 
but  still  green  wood,  are  used  to  propagate  many  hard- 


122 


FIG.     109— POTTING 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


wood  trees,  shrubs  and  vines 
such  as  rose,  lilac,  diervilla  and 
hydrangea.  For  outdoor  work 
they  are  made  usually  before 
midsummer;  indoors,  during 
late  winter.  They  are  cut  and 
treated  about  the  same  as  are 
hardwood  cuttings.  Frequently 
they  are  secured  in  summer  after 
the  buds  have  developed  and 
the  wood  is  nearly  mature. 
Two  to  five  buds  are  usually 
allowed.  The  cuttings  are  set 
only  a  couple  of  inches  deep  at 
most  in  frames  sheltered 
from  sun  and  wind.  Until  the 
roots  have  formed  they  are 
kept  closely  covered  and  are 
often  sprinkled  to  keep  the  air 
about  them  humid. 

179.  Grape  cutting  storage  experi- 
ment— A  bundle  of  grape  cuttings 
was  placed  in  dust  as  soon  as  made, 
another  in  sand,  a  third  half  in  sand, 
and  a  fourth  in  the  same  cellar  but 
without  protection.  In  spring  when 
planted  in  the  nursery,  best  results 
were  secured  with  the  dust-stored 
cions,  next  best  with  those  in  sand 
and  poorest  with  those  left  uncovered 
— only  about  20  per  cent  of  dust- 
stored  cions. 

180.  "June-struck  cuttings" 
are  made  from  the  young  shoots 
of  various  hardy  shrubs  such  as 
privet,  weigela  and  hydrangea. 
The  two  to  three-inch  cuttings 
partly  stripped  of  their  leaves 
They 
very  carefully  shaded 


1.  Placing   the   drainage   in   the 

pot.   2.  Placing  the  rooted  cutting    are  started  under  glass. 

and  the  soil.  3.  Firming  the  plant 
in    the    pot. 


CLASSES  OF  CUTTINGS 


123 


and  watered.  Rooting  is  rather  slow,  a  month  or  more 
often  being  necessary.  Good  plants  may  thus  be  grown, 
plants  which  after  wintering  in  cold  frames,  may  be  set  in 
the  open  the  following  spring.  This  is  a  quick  method 
of  increasing  stock,  since  more  or  less  cuttings  of  green 
wood  may  be  made  from  the  plants  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  season  and  grown  indoors  during  the  winter. 

181.  Transplanting  outdoor  grown  cuttings  should 
occur  at  the  close  of  the  growing  season,  if  there  is  time 
between  the  ripening  of  their  wood  and  the  approach  of 
winter  for  them  to  become  established.  In  such  cases 


FIG.    110— FIELD    PLANTING    OF    POTTED    DAHLIAS 
1.  Italian   laborer   who   sets   4,500   plants   in    10  hours.     2.  Gang  of   men    he   leads. 

winter  mulching  is  necessary.  When  maturity  is  late, 
spring  planting  is  advisable.  Always  liberal  space 
should  be  given  so  the  plants  will  have  ample  food  and 
develop  symmetrically.  In  some  cases,  plants  may  be 
sold  at  one  year  old ;  in  others,  at  two  years. 

Cutting  plants  should  never  be  allowed  to  remain  in 
the  nursery  rows  more  than  one  growing  season.  If 
they  are  there  will  be  serious  loss  of  roots  when  dug. 

182.  Green  wood  or  soft  wood  cuttings  are  more  widely 
used  than  any  other  kind  because  they  strike  root  easily, 
are  readily  rooted  under  glass  and  the  great  majority  of 
plants,  whether  soft  or  hard  wooded,  can  be  propagated 


124  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

by  them.  In  amateur  window  gardening  they  are  often 
called  "slips,"  because  they  are  the  side  shoots  pulled  or 
"slipped"  off  the  main  stems  and  branches  of  plants. 
The  term  is  not  used  in  commercial  practice  since  "cut- 
ting" covers  the  whole  idea.  Bedding  plants — alternan- 
thera,  achyranthes,  coleus,  geranium  (Fig.  92),  verbena, 
ageratum,  and  salvia — are  so  .propagated.  Green  wood 

cuttings  are  also  made  of 
dahlia,  sweet  or  Irish 
potato  sprouts  when 
stock  is  costly  or  scarce, 
tubers  being  started  in 
the  usual  way,  the  stems 
cut  when  large  enough, 
and  placed  in  a  cut- 
ting bed.  Soft  grow- 
ing tips  of  many  orna- 
mental shrubs  and  other 
hardwood  plants  are 

FIG.    lll-GREEN    WOOD    FOR    CUTTINGS    treated       tllUS  £       at       the 

a,  just  right;  b,  too  old.  right   stage   of  develop- 

ment. 

183.  Requisites  for  green  wood  cuttings. — The  primary 
requisite  for  success  with  green  wood  cuttings  is  vigorous 
health  in  the  parent  plant.     Failure   is  almost  certain 
otherwise.     Second,  when  bent  the  wood  must  be  in  such 
condition  that  it  will  not  crush  but  snap,  leaving  a  clean 
break  across  the  stem  with  nothing  but  a  little  epidermis 
connecting   the  broken  part  with  the  stem  below  (Fig. 
111).  This  is  a  beginner's  test;  experienced  propagators 
recognize  the  right  stage  of  development  at  a  glance. 

184.  Stem  parts  used  for  green  cuttings. — Propagators 
dispute  whether  terminal  or  twig  tip  cuttings  will  give 
better   results   than   those   lower   down.     Doubtless     cut- 
tings made  from  main  stems  and  each  with  a  terminal 
bud  will  give  most  satisfactory  results,  but  this  is  rather 
because  of  their  vigor  and  vitality  than  because  of  the 


CLASSES  OF  CUTTINGS  125 

mere  presence  of  terminal  buds.  Therefore,  when  there 
is  a  good  supply  of  plant  material,  propagators  usually 
gather  only  the  tips  of  the  shoots  (Fig.  Ill)  for  making 
green  wood  cuttings.  Especially  is  this  the  case  with 
bedding  plants  that  have  been  growing  in  the  open  air. 
Such  plants  are  either  transplanted  to  the  greenhouse  or 
cut  close  to  the  ground  and  taken  to  the  work  room, 
where  terminal  growths  are  made  into  cuttings  and  the 
balance  thrown  away.  During  the  winter  stock  plants 
(145),  as  also  the  first  rooted  cutting  plants  made  from 
them,  have  their  terminals  removed  to  make  new  shoots. 
Such  plants  often  produce  growths  of  3  to  10  inches, 
depending  largely  on  species  and  variety.  When  such 
growths  are  cut  and  propagated  by  midwinter  they  produce 
bedding  plants  for  outdoor  setting  by  spring. 

185.  Making  green  wood  cuttings. — Green  wood  cut- 
tings are  usually  two  to  four  inches  long  and  have  at 
least  one  leaf.    When  several  leaves  are  allowed  to  remain 
they  are   cut  more  or  less   to   reduce   transpiration  of 
water.     Usually  the  cuts  are  made  just  below  the  nodes, 
but  with  many  subjects  this  is  unnecessary,  as  soft  wood 
cuttings  will  often  strike  root  at  any  point  covered  with 
soil,  though  most  roots  come  near  the  base  of  the  cut- 
tings whether  or  not  cut  near  a  node.     When  cuttings 
are  very  short,  they  are  often  tied  to  toothpicks   (Fig. 
92)  so  they  will  "stay  put"  in  the  propagating  bed. 

186.  Removal  of  leaves  from  green  wood  cuttings,  as 
also  from  transplanted  plants,  is  not  essential  to  success, 
but  is  an  aid,  since  it  checks  transpiration  of  water  and, 
therefore,  the  danger  of  "flagging"  or  wilting.     Entire 
stripping  of  leaves  as  compared  with  leaf-surface  reduc- 
tion should  be  avoided,  as  the  assistance  of  some  leaf  sur- 
face is  helpful  to  root  formation,  provided  proper  mois- 
ture control  is  practiced.    Various  subjects  do  best  under 
various  treatments ;  for  example,  coleus  should  be  severely 
stripped,  geranium  rather  less,  alternanthera  very  little. 


126 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


187.  Bedding  green  wood  cuttings. — Since  green  wood 
cuttings  are  usually  more  easily  injured  than  are  those 
of  mature  wood,  they  are  handled  more  carefully.  When 
large  quantities  of  one  kind  of  plant  are  made  the  usual 
practice  is  to  drop  them  as  finished  into  water  to  pre- 
vent wilting.  The  propagating  bed  is  prepared  by  level- 
ing off  and  soaking  the  sand.  Then  a  narrow  board  or 
"straight  edge"  is  placed  across  the  bed  from  aisle  to 


FIG.  112— BUDDING  NURSERY  STOCK 

Notice    the    tiring   position    of   the    budders.      This    is    the    usual    attitude,    though 
some    budders    work    on     their    knees. 


CLASSES  OF  CUTTINGS 


127 


back  and  a  wooden  knife  or  a  large  label  sharpened  on 
one  edge  thrust  obliquely  in  the  sand  (Fig.  43)  to 
the  required  depth  beside  the  board  at  the  back  of  the 
bed  and  drawn  toward  the  aisle,  thus  making  a  trench 
with  a  vertical  and  solid  sand  wall  on  one  side  and  an 
oblique  rather  loose  one  on  the  other.  The  board  is  then 
removed,  the  cuttings  placed  at  proper  intervals  against 
the  vertical  wall  and  loose  sand  from  the  other  side 
pressed  against  each  with  the  fingers  (Fig.  43).  After 
all  are  in  position  the  bed  is  drenched  with  a  fine  rose 
sprinkler  to  settle  the  sand.  Newspapers  are  then  spread 


FIG.  113— VARIOUS  STYLES  OF  WATERING  POTS 

A,    adjustable    to    any    position;    b,    reaches    far;    c,    common    style;    d,    long- 
necked   form  without  nose;   e,  common   style  but   with   long   neck. 

over  the  cuttings  (Fig.  18)  to  check  transpiration  and 
evaporation  for  a  week  or  two.  Strong  sunshine  is  very 
injurious  until  the  cuttings  have  made  roots  (Fig.  91), 
because  the  stems  cannot  take  up  water  and  because  the 
leaves  give  off  moisture  more  or  less  rapidly.  Hence 
the  necessity  for  great  care  in  watering  and  shading,  the 
former  to  keep  both  sand  and  cuttings  moist ;  the  latter 
to  keep  the  air  around  the  leaves  humid. 

In  a  small  way  green  wood  cuttings  may  be  started 
in  flower  pots,  saucers  or  soup  plates  two-thirds  filled 
with  sand  and  then  kept  brimming  full  of  water.  Bottom 
heat,  when  necessary,  may  be  supplied  at  the  back  of  the 
kitchen  stove.  It  is  not  essential  to  shade  these  plates 
even  when  set  in  full  sunlight. 

Another  method  of  placing  "soft  wood"  cuttings  in  the 
sand  bed  is  to  press  the  edge  of  a  window  pane  vertically 


128  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

into  the  sand.  Insert  the  cuttings  at  proper  intervals 
in  the  neat  trench  thus  prepared  and  tighten  the  sand 
about  them  by  gently  tamping  it  with  a  brick  or  a 
heavy  wooden  block  (Fig.  20).  Lay  a  thin  board,  of  any 
desired  width,  between  the  rows  of  cuttings,  on  the  sand 
with  one  edge  against  the  preceding  row,  using  the  other 
edge  as  a  guide  for  the  glass.  Prepare  other  trenches 
similarly.  This  insures  a  neat  bed  with  level  surface. 


FIG.    114— BRYOPHYLLUM   LEAF 
With  young   plants   in  notches  of  margin. 

188.  Tomato  cuttings  grown  experimentally  out  of  doors  have 
given    more,    earlier    but    smaller    fruits    than    seedlings;    indoors 
seedlings  were  decidedly  superior. 

189.  Keeping    soft    cuttings    alive    for    long    periods. — G.    W. 
Oliver  has  successfully  transported  herbaceous  cuttings   from  dis- 
tant places   as    follows:     A   layer  of   cuttings  is   arranged,   upper 
leaf  surface  down,  without  crowding,  on  a  pane  of  glass  and  covered 


CLASSES  OF  CUTTINGS 


129 


with  two  or  three  inches  of  fine,  damp  sphagnum  moss  evenly  dis- 
tributed. A  second  layer  of  cuttings  is  placed  on  the  moss  with 
the  upper  surfaces  of  the  leaves  facing  upward  and  covered  with 
a  second  pane  of  glass.  The  two  panes  are  pressed  firmly  and 
made  into  a  package  by  tying.  By  keeping  the  moss  moist  and 
giving  plenty  of  light,  the.  cuttings  carry  well,  provided  the  ma- 
terial is  healthy.  When  the  journey  is  long  the  cuttings  are  often 
rooted  on  arrival.  With  the  moss  only  slightly  dampened,  cions 
and  bud-sticks  of  rare  plants  have  kept  well  long  under  the  same 
treatment. 

190.  Sugar  cane  cuttings  have  been  shipped  long  distances  when 
treated  with  bordeaux  and  then  packed  in  damp  charcoal. 

191.  Leaf  cuttings. — Leaves  of     cer- 
tain plants  may  be  made  to  produce 
new  plants.    Some  of  these  are  planted 
whole,  others  cut  in  various  ways.  In 
certain   cases    (rex  begonia)    the   new 
growth   arises   from   adventitious   buds, 
but  in  others  (various  ferns)  it  conies 
from  true  buds  which  originate  in  the 
stems.     True  buds  may  form  on  the 
leaves  before  being  cut  from  the  parent 
plant    (Bryophyllnm      calycinum)       or 
afterwards  (rex  begonia)  ;  normal     in 
the  former  case,  adventitious   in     the 
latter. 

Temperature  and  moisture  condi- 
tions are  the  same  for  leaf  cuttings  as  for  soft  wood  cuttings. 
While  many  plants  may  be  made  to  reproduce  by  leaf  cut- 
tings (cabbage,  lemon)  few  can  be  profitably  so  propagat- 
ed. The  process,  in  some  cases,  detroys  variegation  in  the 
progeny;  e.  g.,  while  certain  variegated  ivy  geraniums 
may  be  reproduced  by  soft  wood  cuttings,  they  become 
plain  green  when  leaf  cuttings  are  used. 

In  some  cases  whole  leaves  are  used  as  cuttings,  in 
others  the  leaves  are  cut  in  pieces.  A  whole  leaf  of  be- 
gonia is  placed  flat  on  the  propagating  bench  with  a  short 
piece  of  its  petiole  buried  in  the  sand.  Cuts  are  then 
made  across  the  main  veins  in  various  places  and  the  leaf 
either  pegged  down  or  held  in  position  with  a  little 


ROOTED  GLOXINIA 
LEAF 


130  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

sand.  If  contact  with  the  sand  is  good  and  if  moisture 
and  temperature  conditions  are  right,  little  plants  will 
be  produced  at  the  wounds  and  also  where  the  veins 
start  to  branch  at  the  leaf  base.  When  large  enough  to 
handle  conveniently,  they  may  be  potted. 

With  costly  or  scarce  stock  begonia  leaves  are  often 
cut  from  their  bases  outward  to  the  margins,  thus  form- 
ing somewhat  fan-shaped  or  triangular  pieces  two  or 
three  inches  long  and  an  inch  or  so  wide.  In  this  case 
the  stalk  is  cut  off  close  to  the  leaf  blade  and  the  basal 
third  of  the  blade  also  cut  from  one  edge  to  the  other  by 
a  straight  slash.  This  base  is  then  cut  into  wedge-shaped 
pieces  with  a  rib  in  the  middle  of  each  and  a  small  part 
of  the  petiole  at  the  lower  end.  The  triangular  pieces 
thus  formed  are  placed  stem  end  down  in  a  cutting  bench. 
Soon  young  plants  form  at  the  lower  points  (Fig.  102). 

Bryophyllum  leaves,  in  greenhouse  practice,  are  laid 
flat  on  the  propagating  bench.  Soon  they  form  little 
plants  from  most  of  the  notches  on  their  margins  (Fig. 
114).  In  Bermuda  and  other  moist  climates,  such  plants 
will  form  even  when  the  parent  plants  or  the  mature 
leaves  are  hung  on  the  walls  of  a  room.  The  same  thing 
often  occurs  in  greenhouses. 

Whole  gloxinia  leaves  are  used,  the  stems  being  placed 
in  the  sand.  Unlike  the  other  cases  cited,  neither  stems 
nor  leaves  usually  take  root,  but  a  little  tuber  forms  at 
the  base  of  each  leaf  stem.  Such  tubers  are  then  dried 
and  after  a  "rest"  planted  like  other  tubers.  Fig.  115 
shows  a  leaf  cutting  that  did  take  root,  but  did  not  form 
a  tuber.  It  might  have  done  so  if  allowed  to  remain 
longer  in  the  cutting  bench. 

Hyacinth  leaves  placed  in  a  propagating  bed  soon 
develop  bulblets  at  their  bases.  Treatment  of  these 
is  the  same  as  for  those  grown  by  other  methods. 


CHAPTER  X 
GRAFTAGE— GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS 

192.  Graftage,  which  includes  grafting,  budding  and 
inarching,  is  the  natural  or  artificial  process  of  making  a 
part  of  one  plant  unite  with  and  grow  upon  the  roots  of 
another.     A   graft  may,  therefore,  be  considered  as   a 
cutting  which  unites  some  of  its  tissues  with  those  of 
another  plant   or   plant   part   with   or   without   forming 
either  callus  or  roots,  as  always  happens  when  cuttings 
are  developed  into  independent  plants. 

193.  As  a  horticultural   process,   graftage   is  of  very 
ancient  origin.     In  his  Natural  History  (Vol.  2  pp.  477 
to  485)  Pliny  about  2,000  years  ago,  wrote  about  it  as 
common  practice,  but  its  methods  have  been  kept  largely 
as  trade  secrets  or  mysteries  until  within  the  last  half 
century  or  so.     Pliny  says  the  art  was  taught  by  nature. 
But  he  goes  too  far,  for  he  declares  that  cherry  has  been 


FIG.    116— SECTIONS    OF    GRAFTS 

1.     Plum   cleft   graft.     2.   Bud   grafts   one   and   three  years   old.     Note   old 
stock  wood  and  continuous   layers   of  young   tissue. 


132 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


found  growing  on  willow,  sycamore  on  laurel,  laurel  on 
cherry  and  so  on.  Such  cases,  except  as  noted  (207),  are 
not  grafts  at  all  but  are  merely  trees  of  one  kind  growing 
in  soil  held  in  crevices  of  another  kind — cases  by  no 
means  rare. 

194.  Stock — any  plant  part,  usually  root  or  stem,  in 
which  a  bud  or  a  cion  is  inserted  to  propagate  a  plant 
species,  variety  or  strain. 

195.  Cion — any  plant  part,  usually  of  a  stem,  inserted 
in  a  stock  for  propagation.     It  may  consist  of  one  bud 
with  little  or  no  wood,  as  in  budding,  or  of  one  or  more 
buds  with  one  or  more  inter-nodes,  as  in  grafting. 

196.  Objects  of  graftage.     Graftage  may  be  used :     1, 
To  alter  plant  character  by  modifying  wood,  foliage,  or 
fruit  produced.     2,  To  develop  branches,  flowers  or  fruit 
where  they  are  lacking  on  trees  or  shrubs.    3,  To  enhance 


FIG.     117— SIDE    GRAFT 

1.  Stock,  chisel   and   mallet;  2.   Incision   made   and  graft   wrapped;   3.   Waxed, 
completed  graft — cion  at  right. 


GRAFTAGE GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS  133 

4 

the  vigor  of  defective  or  exhausted  trees  and  shrubs  by 
influx  of  fresh  sap.  4,  To  facilitate  reproduction  of 
monoecious  or  dioecious  plants  by  grafting  in  cions  of 
the  lacking  sex.  5,  To  propagate  and  preserve  varieties 
of  countless  woody  and  some  herbaceous  plants  which 
cannot  be  conveniently  reproduced  by  other  means. 

197.  Necessity  for  graftage.  Since  seedage  is  quicker 
and  cheaper,  graftage  is  rarely  employed  to  propagate 
species,  and  then  only  such  species  as  produce  seed  spar- 
ingly under  cultivation  are  so  reproduced.  For  similar 
reasons  cuttage  and  layerage  are  preferred  for  most 
shrubs.  Graftage  finds  its  chief  application,  therefore, 
in  the  propagation  of  varieties  and  strains  of  woody 
plants  that  do  not  come  true  from  seeds  and  that  cannot 
be  cheaply  or  conveniently  enough  grown  from  cuttings, 
layers  or  by  other  asexual  methods.  All  our  named 
varieties  of  tree  fruits,  nuts  and  many  ornamentals  such 
as  azaleas  and  roses  (not  all  roses,  by  any  means)  are 
propagated  by  one  or  more  methods  of  graftage.  As  in 
other  asexual  methods,  graftage  will  produce  the  same 
variety  as  the  parent  tree  or  shrub,  bud  sports  excepted. 

For  these  reasons  graftage  is  a  necessary  business 
process,  because  nowadays  planters  demand  stock  true 
to  a  definite  standard  of  quality,  size,  trueness  to  type  and 
ability  to  meet  other  requirements  which  can  be  met, 
at  least  among  woody  and  many  herbaceous  plants,  only 
by  asexual  means,  among  which  graftage  has  been  proved 
by  commercial  nurseries  to  be  the  most  economical.  If 
this  were  not  so,  other  methods  would  be  followed ;  for 
the  nurserymen  are  human  enough  to  choose  the  methods 
that  give  results  most  satisfactory  to  all  concerned  ;  other- 
wise they  could  not  long  be  in  the  business.  Hence  we 
find  pome  fruits  still  largely  root-grafted  in  winter 
(though  budding  is  gaining  in  popularity),  pit  fruits  bud- 
ded in  summer,  currants  grown  from  spring-set  cuttings 
— each  kind  of  plant  propagated  by  the  method  that  suits 
it  best  and  most  economically  gives  best  results. 


GRAFTAGE GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS 


135 


198.  Unreliability  of  seeds. — Graftage  or  some  other 
asexual  process  is  necessary  also  because  seeds  cannot 
be  relied  upon  to  produce  varieties  of  tree  and  bush 
fruits  or  of  many  shrubs,  herbaceous  perennials  and  other 
plants  true  to  name,  the  reason  being  that  the  type  has 
not  been  fixed  by  that  method  as  in  the  case  of  many 
vegetables,  annuals  and  some  perennial  flowers. 

For  instance,  if  seeds  of  the  Northern  Spy  apple  (199)  or  of 
Salway  peach  were  sown,  all  we  might  be  able  to  say  of  the 
young  trees  grown  would  be  that  they  were  respectively  apple  and 
peach  trees ;  possibly  not  one  would  resemble  the  parent  enough 
to  deserve  the  name  Northern  Spy  apple  or  Salway  peach. 

The  cause  of  this  lies  in  the  fact 
that  from  prehistoric  time  flowers 
of  fruits  have  naturally  cross  pol- 
linated, perhaps  usually  not  been 
fertilized  by  their  own  pollen  nor 
perhaps  even  by  that  from  other 
flowers  in  the  same  cluster  or  yet 
the  same  tree,  but  from  some 
tree  of  a  different  variety.  Wind 
and  insects  are  the  chief  carriers 
of  the  pollen  which  impresses 
parental  characters  upon  the 
ovules  in  the  flowers  of  our 
Northern  Spy  apple  or  Salway 
peach  so  the  seedlings  may  be 
better,  but  the  overwhelming 
chances  are  they  will  not  be  even 
as  good.  This  form  of  reproduc- 
tion, continued  for  countless 
centuries,  has  mixed  things  up 
so  that  seeds  cannot  be  relied 
upon  in  the  classes  mentioned. 
The  exceptions  are  so  conspicuous  that  they  prove  the  rule. 

Among  peaches  the  Honey  group,  grown  to  some  ex- 
tent in  Florida,  and  the  Heath  Cling  come  fairly  true  to 
type  from  seed.  Among  apples  it  is  said  the  Duchess  of 


FIG.     119— PRECOCIOUS    CLEFT 

GRAFTS 

Lower  cion  set  five  apples  the 
first  year  and  the  upper  two  had 
several  fruits  the  second  year. 


136  PLAXT     PROPAGATION 

Oldenburg,  the  Yellow  Transparent  and  some  other  Rus- 
sian varieties  do  the  same  thing.  In  spite  of  much  dis- 
cussion two  or  three  decades  ago  it  seems  settled  now 
that  the  influence  of  pollen  does  not  noticeably  affect  the 
character  of  the  fruit  which  contains  the  cross-pollinated 
seed.  But  this  is  a  topic  which  does  not  concern  the 
present  discussion. 


FIG.  120— TREE  PEDDLERS'  SHEDS  AT  NURSERY 

Each  peddler  has  a  numbered  shed  where  he  makes  up  his  packages  of  trees  bought 
from    the    nursery. 

199.  Northern  Spy  seedlings — W.  T.  Macoun  of   Canada  grew 
100    Northern    Spy    seedlings    concerning   which    this    summary   is 
presented :    35  per  cent  resembled  the  parent  in  general  appearance, 
12  per  cent  in  form,  39  per  cent  in  flesh,  19  per  cent  in  color,  35 
per  cent  in  flavor  and  28  per  cent  in  no  marked  resemblance.    Most 
of  the  seedlings,  like  the  parent,  were  late  in  coming  into  bearing. 
This  investigator  concludes  that  the  Spy  is  one  of  the  best  parents 
to  use  in  cross  breeding,  since  it  has  impressed  its  good  character- 
istics  on   a  large   proportion   of   its   progeny,   although    a   self   or 
nearly  self-sterile  variety. 

200.  Importance  of  graftage.* — Graftage,  while  one  of 
the  most  important  of  horticultural  processes,  is  one  of 

•Paragraph     200     has     been     considerably    condensed     from     Technical     Bulle- 
tin  No.  2,  by   F.  A.  Waugh,   of   the  Massachusetts  Agricultural   College. 


GRAFTAGE GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS 


137 


the  most  intricate.  Because  of  its  importance  and  the  dif- 
ficulties in  solving  its  problems  it  has  given  rise  to  much 
study  and  many  theories  often  based  on  imperfect  obser- 
vations in  disregard  of  obvious  and  simple  facts. 

Graftage  is  said  to  be  the  union  of  a  cion  with  a  stock. 
So  far  as  nurseryman  and  fruit  grower  are  concerned 
this  is  the  prime  aim.  Success  or  failure  from  their 
standpoint  depends  upon  the  nature  of  this  union.  The 
terms  good  and  poor  unions,  are  among  the  commonest 
in  horticultural  parlance;  yet  their  meaning  is  generally 


FIG.    121— DIAGRAMS   OF   GRAFT   AND   BUD   CROSS   SECTIONS 

A,  cleft  graft  three  years  old;  B,  bud  graft  at  three  years;  C,  separateness  of 
cells  in  stock  and  cion.    (Black  parts  in  A  and  B  represent  stock;  in  C,  the  cion.) 

conjectured.  The  easy  statement  that  stock  and  cion 
grow  together  does  not  satisfy  the  question,  How  do  they 
unite  ?  The  popular  idea  is  that  the  union  is  like  the  knit- 
ting of  a  broken  bone,  also  that  both  stock  and  cion 
produce  new  tissue  which  commingle  more  or  less  as 
human  skin  does  after  the  surgical  operation  of  skin 
grafting.  But  both  these  suppositions  are  vague  and  far 
from  the  truth.  Possibly  in  herbaceous  grafting  where 
soft  growing  tissues  are  used  there  may  be  unions  of  these 
characters,  but  even  in  such  cases  the  blending  seems  to 
be  purely  local ;  for  original  stock  and  original  cion 
maintain  their  individuality — each  will  produce  fruit 
after  its  kind. 


138  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

In  graftage  of  mature  wood  such  a  blending  is  impos- 
sible ;  for  with  the  exception  of  the  cambium  layer  both 
stock  and  cion  consist  almost  wholly  of  dead  heart  wood 
and  dead  bark  which  cannot  unite  with  anything. 

It  is  different  to  say  the  cambium  layers  of  stock  and 
cion  unite.  But  even  this  statement  does  not  explain 


FIG.    122— SECTION    OF   APPLE    GRAFTS 
1.     Transverse     section.       2.     Longitudinal. 

the  process,  though  it  leads  in  the  right  direction,  for  the 
cambium  and  a  few  layers  of  cells  on  each  side  of  it  are 
the  only  part  of  an  exogenous  stem  really  alive.  Upon 
it  depends  the  possibility  of  a  graft  union. 

Even  naked  eye  examination  of  cross  or  transverse 
sections  of  successful  grafts  several  years  old  will  show 
(1)  that  cion  and  stock  have  not  united  and  (2)  that 
wood  produced  after  the  union  is  as  continuous  as  in  an 
ungrafted  stem.  At  least  in  the  layers  that  bury  a  graft 
junction  whatever  difference  there  may  be  is  not  appar- 
ent. The  truth  of  the  diagram  (Fig.  121)  is  fully  sup- 


GRAFTAGE GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS  139 

ported  by  photographic  cross  sections  of  both  grafted 
and  budded  stems  (Fig.  116).  In  every  case  the  line 
of  demarcation  between  stock  and  cion  and  also  the 
continuous  envelopes  of  new  tissue  may  be  clearly  seen. 
Thus  it  is  evident  that :  1.  Stock  and  cion  do  not  unite ; 
they  remain  distinct.  2.  Annual  layers  produced  after 
grafting  do  not  unite  in  the  common  meaning  of  that 


FIG.    123— PLUM  GRAFTS   SHOWING   CONTINUOUS   LAYERS   OF   NEW   WOOD 
The  old  wood  in  the  specimen  on  the  right  has  been  partly  eaten  out  by  ants. 

term;  each  is  complete  and  continuous.  3.  In  hardwood 
graftage  "union"  of  stock  and  cion  is  different  in  its 
physical  nature  from  the  sense  of  common  speech. 

These  simple  obvious  conclusions  suggest  questions 
and  doubts  which  do  much  to  disguise  the  main  facts. 
For  instance,  the  horticulturist  knows  that  when  a  pear 
cion  is  grafted  on  a  quince  stock,  every  bud  above  the 
union  will  produce  pears  and  every  one  below,  quinces. 

But  there  is  a  division  (and  there  must  be)  between 


140 


PLANT     PROPAGATION 


the  two  kinds  of  wood;  what  is  its  nature?  How  definite 
is  it?  Is  it  physically  strong  or  weak?  Would  answers 
to  these  questions  be  more  than  speculations?  It  must 
be  remembered,  however,  that  such  answers  are  beyond 
the  conclusions  cited  above  and  that  the  facts  so  far 
presented  are  not  affected  by  the  following-  discussion. 

Sections  of  grafts 
(Fig.  124)  show  that 
in  spite  of  the  longitu- 
dinal continuity  of  the 
annual  layers  there  is 
sometimes  a  plainly  vis- 
ible line  of  demarca- 
tion between  the  wood 
of  stock  and  cion  at 
right  angles  to  the 
longitudinal  growth,  yet 
reveal  the  secret  of 


FIG.   124— CHERRY  CION  ON  PLUM  STOCK 
Notice  continuous  annual  layers  of  wood. 


not 


the     microscope      does 

individual     cells     which     compose     the     tissue.       One 

can  nearly  always  see  less  with  the  microscope  than  with 

the  naked  eye!     In  the  section  shown  in  Fig.  132  and 

magnified     about     1,000 

times,  the  little  knot  near 

the   middle   accidentally 

shows  one  point  on  the 

line  of  junction,  but  the 

vessels  and  the  cells  run 

from  end  to  end  without 

interruption.      So    it    is 

harder  than  ever  to  see 

where   stock   ends      and 

cion      begins.        Hence 

those      gardeners      who 

have   been   dreaming  of 

producing  new  kinds  of    FIG.  125—  DEFECTIVE  PEAR  BUD  GRAFT 

plants  by  grafting  must  ON  QUINCE  STOCK 

needs     Wake     Up  ;     for    HO      Probab.'y   du?.  to.   incompatibility  of  stock   and 

cion.      Notice   cleanness   or    break, 


GRAFTAGE GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS  14! 

matter  how  closely  the  two  kinds  of  cells  may  be  against 
each  other  their  contents  never  mingle  to  produce  a  new 
cell.  Every  cell  is  the  production  by  division  of  some  other 
cell;  never  the  product  of  fusion  of  two  parent  cells  (Fig. 
121).  The  commingling  of  stock  and  cion  cells  is  purely 
physical,  not  physiological. 

In  budding,  merely  a  form  of  graftage,  the  layers  of 
new  growth  are  continuous — just  as  in  the  graft.  A  suc- 
cessful bud  graft  cut  (Fig.  116)  shows  precisely  the  same 
conditions  as  in  grafting,  except  that  the  line  of  demarca- 
tion is  less  easy  to  see. 

The  physical  strength  of  unions  is  often  discussed  by 
horticulturists,  many  of  whom  claim  that  this  is  a  point 
of  weakness  (201).  Others  claim  that  a  successful  graft 
union  is  the  strongest  point  of  the  stem.  Common  obser- 
vation shows  that  the  region  of  graftage  is  more  or  less 
swollen  by  the  deposition  of  woody  tissue,  and  cross  sec- 
tions at  such  points  show  very  close-grained  wood. 
Often  when  grafts  are  cut  open  and  dried  the  tissues 
check  and  split  less  at  the  junction  point  than  above  or 
below,  thus  showing  extra  strength  of  fibers.  Observa- 
tion also  shows  that  when  winds  break  off  branches  in 
old  orchards  a  majority  of  the  fractures  occur  not  where 
the  grafts  have  been  made  but  at  other  points. 

Yet  grafts  do  sometimes  break  even  after  years  of  ap- 
parently healthy  growth.  Why?  Possibly  because  of 
physiological  unlikeness  or  aversion  (if  such  a  term  may 
be  permitted).  The  wound  heals  slowly  or  poorly;  loose 
primary  or  scar  instead  of  stronger  tissue  fills  the  space 
and  weakness  follows,  Clairgeau  pear  on  quince  and 
domestica  plum  on  peach  are  familiar  examples.  But  set- 
ting aside  such  cases,  if  stock  and  cion  are  congenial  to 
each  other  and  if  the  cion  (or  bud)  grows  at  all,  the 
union  should  be  good.  Poor  manipulation  will  cause 
many  failures  of  grafts  to  grow,  but  will  rarely  affect 
strength  of  union  in  grafts  which  live.  All  degrees  of 
physical  strength  may  be  seen  in  graft  unions  from  those 


FIG.    126 — PROPAGATION   IN   GREENHOUSES 

1.  Orchids  on   benches  and  in  hanging  pots.     2.  Cyclamen   large  enouj 
3.      Geraniums   by   the    10,000    in    a   large   commercial    plant. 


GRAFTAGE GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS 


143 


stronger  than  the  contiguous  parts  of  the  same  stems  to 
those  incapable  of  holding  themselves  in  place. 

201.  Physical  strength  of  graft  unions.  From  the 
standpoint  of  plant  anatomy  and  physiology  grafts  may 
1>e  weak  in  several  ways.  1,  Physical  weakness  at  point 
of  union ;  2,  cion  leaves  may  find  it  difficult  to  elab- 
orate sap  taken  up  by  stock  roots ;  3,  stock  roots  may 
find  difficulty  in  assimilating  plant  food  elaborated  by  the 
leaves ;  4,  there  may  be 
an  interruption  in  the 
upward  flow  of  sap  due 
to  faulty  connection  of 
the  xylem  (203)  vessels 
at  the  point  of  union ;  5, 
a  similar  one  in  the 
downward  flow,  due  to 
faulty  union  of  the 
phloem  (202)  ;  6,  the 
quantity  of  sap  taken  up 
by  the  root  may  be  too 
much  or  too  little  for  the 
proper  supply  of  the 
cion ;  7,  the  amount  of 
elaborated  sap  from  the 
cion  may  be  either  too 
much  or  too  little  for 
proper  feeding  of  the 
stock. 

Concerning  these  points  N.  O.  Booth  of  the  Oklahoma 
station  has  been  conducting  experiments  upon  which 
he  has  made  a  progress  report  from  which  the  following 
points  are  taken.  Unfortunately,  a  fire  destroyed  later 
material  and  data,  so  the  preliminary  report  is  obliged  to 
stand  by  itself. 

Physical  weakness  is  a  difficult  question  because  of  the 
variation  between  different  trees  and  different  unions  of 
stock  and  cion.  To  test  it,  the  wood  of  10-year-old 


127— WEEPING    MULBERRY    ON 
ERECT     STEM 


GRAFTAGE — GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS  145 

trees  was  tested  as  to  its  physical  strength  by  a  machine 
used  for  such  purposes.     Except  in  the  last  case  cited 


a 


FIG.     129— CUTTINGS    AND    WHIP    GRAFT 


1.  a,  straight  cuttings;  b,  c,  mallet  cuttings;  d,  heel  cutting.  These  methods 
are  all  used  for  grape  propagation.  2,  whip  or  tongue  graft;  a,  stock;  b, 
cion  prepared;  c,  stock  and  cion  fitted  properly;  d,  parts  tied  together;  e,  com- 
pleted by  waxing;  f,  whip  graft  on  root. 


146  I 'I.  ANT     PROPAGATION 

below,  the  tests  were  purposely  made  within  three  weeks 
of  the  tree  felling,  because  it  was  believed  green  wood 
rather  than  seasoned  represents  more  nearly  conditions  in 
growing  trees. 

TEST  OF  TRANSVERSE  BREAKING  STRENGTH 

point,  Ibs.       point,  Ibs. 

Plum,  first  block   2,540  4,750 

Plum,  second   block 3,160  4,950 

To  eliminate  possible  discrepancy  due  to  the  breaking 
point  of  the  union  being  closer  to  the  ground,  and  hence 
possibly  in  softer  wood,  the  next  block  was  broken  above 
and  below  as  well  as  at  the  union. 

TEST  OF  TRANSVERSE  BREAKING  STRENGTH 

At  union  Above  union  Below  union 

point,  Ibs.  point,  Ibs.  point,  Ibs. 

Apricot,   first   block    3,300  8,260  4,100 

Apricot,  second   block   2,560  7,940 

Tensile  strength  of  one-half-inch  strips  of  apricot :    No. 
1  broke  at  union  with  1,330  pounds  pull ;  above,  1,550 ; 
No.  2  broke  slightly  below  union  with  2,870  pounds  pull, 
sl'jhtly  above  1,770,  but  would  not  break  at  union. 
TEST  OF  TRANSVERSE  BREAKING  STRENGTH 

At  union      Above  union 
point,  Ibs.       point,  Ibs. 
Apricot,  seasoned  four  monfhs 1,930  4,355 

The  results,  Professor  Booth  points  out,  "are  very  posi- 
tive and  it  does  not  seem  at  all  likely  that  further  tests 
will  invalidate  the  statement  that  for  many  trees  the  point 
of  union  is  a  real  and  evident  weakness.  It  is  true,  how- 
ever, that  all  three  trees  tested  were  apparently  strong. 
had  made  vigorous  growth  and  had  never  broken  in  any 
way.  They  were  about  eight  inches  thick  and  about  10 
years  old.  For  orchard  purposes  this  weakness  does  not 
appear  to  be  of  importance.  There  is  also  no  question 
but  that  the  thickening  of  the  trunk,  which  usually  shows 
at  the  point  of  union,  may  lessen  materially  the  weakness 
of  the  trunk  at  this  point." 

202.  Phloem,  that  portion  of  a  nbro-vascular  bundle  in 
plants  containing  the  bast  and  sieve  tissue.  In  exogens 


GRAFTAC.K GKXKKAL  COXSIOKRATIONS 


147 


it  is  always  sharply  defined  from  the 
remaining  portion  (xylem,  203)  by  a 
layer  of  cambium.  The  inner  bark  is 
derived  from  the  phloem,  the  wood 
from  the  xylem.  The  elaborated  plant 
food  from  the  leaves  passes  down  and 
is  distributed  by  the  phloem. 
FSPV  ™TFn°TRYFEFAsR  203'  Xylem»  or  woody  Portion  of  a 

SPY   BUDDED   TREES          ,-.,  «  ,  11  1*1  , 

fibro-vascular  bundle    which    contains 

A,  stem  cut  at  15  inches 
and   grafted.     B,    Uncut. 

working  checks  growth. 
It    also    delays    bearing. 

the  larger  continuous  air- 
holding  vessels  and  the  walls 
of  whose  cells  are  often 
thickened  and  lignified.  The 
xylem  is  separated  from  the 
phloem  (202)  by  the  cam- 
bium, when  there  is  any,  and 
it  usually  occupies  the  side 
of  the  bundle  toward  the 
center  of  the  stem.  \Yater 
with  the  mineral  compounds 
in  solution  passes  up 
through  the  xylem  to  the 
leaves. 

204.  Limits  of  graftage. 
Theoretically  botanists  and 
nurserymen  have  limited 
graftage  to  the  exogens, 
plants  which  have  a  cam- 
bium layer  in  a  definite  re- 
gion beneath  a  bark  layer; 
for  the  process  depends  upon 

the          intimate          Union          of  Trees    so    handled   have   usually   been 

this     layer    between     stock  have  Farge'bunches^of  s°hrorrfiberousaroots° 
and     cion.        Of      the      151  ™aetyedare  almost  sure  to  grow  when    so 


FIG.  131— BURLAPPED  FOR 
SHIPMENT 


I4»  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

orders,  890  genera  and  4,200  species  listed  in  Gray's  Field, 
Forest  and  Garden  Botany,  110  orders,  650  genera  and 
3,000  species  come  under  this  ruling  and  (theoretically) 
may  be  grafted,  while  the  balance,  the  endogens  which 
lack  the  cambium  sheath  (oat,  bamboo,  palm)  cannot 
be  grafted.  With  experimental  exceptions  (Chapter 
XII)  this  is  so. 

Among  exogens  botanical  relationship  seems  in  most 
cases  to  be  fundamental  to  success  in  graftage  which  is 
usually  easy  between  varieties  of  the  same  species  (apple 


FIG.  132— GREATLY  MAGNIFIED  SECTION  THROUGH  YOUNG  GRAFT. 
Round   mass    of   scar    tissue    near    center    merely    accidental. 

upon  apple)  and  often  between  closely  related  species 
(pear  upon  quince,  or  plum  upon  peach).  Sometimes 
species  more  remotely  related  than  the  genus  will  prove 
successful ;  for  instance,  apple  or  pear  (Pyrus)  upon 
thorn  (Crattfgus).  But  rarely,  and  then  mostly  experi- 
mentally, can  distantly  related  species  be  grafted  suc- 
cessfully ;  probably  not  at  all  from  a  business  standpoint. 
A  few  instances  may  emphasize  these  points.  While 
pear  is  commercially  grafted  upon  quince  to  form  dwarf 
trees,  apple  is  seldom  or  never  so  treated,  and  quince 


GRAFTAGE — GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS  149 

does  not  succeed  on  either  pear  or  apple ;  gooseberry  may 
be  grafted  upon  only  one  species  of  currant  (Ribes 
aureum)  but  currants  do  not  succeed  on  gooseberries ;  apples 
succeed  commercially  only  upon  apple  stock;  peaches  and 
plums  will  each  grow  upon  the  other.  For  years  Prunet 
tried  to  make  chestnuts  grow  upon  oak  in  the  hope  of 
preventing  certain  diseases.  His  conclusions  are  that 
the  plan  will  not  succeed  commercially,  though  he  was 
successful  in  many  instances.  Daniel  and  others  have 
made  many  remarkable  grafts  between  distantly  related 
species,  so  the  theory  that  species  must  be  more  or  less 
closely  related  has  been  knocked  on  the  head.  But  from 
a  commercial  standpoint,  the  theory  is  still  operative  and 
probably  will  continue  to  be. 

While  species  of  the  same  genus  may  be  grafted  suc- 
cessfully, it  may  not  be  profitable  so  to  do.  From  a 
physiological  standpoint  the  best  index  of  success  is  the 
general  thriftiness  of  the  plant  so  produced;  from  a 
business  standpoint,  the  fact  that  nurserymen  and  other 
plant  propagators  stick  by  the  methods  that  make  them 
most  money.  To  be  successful,  stock  and  cion  must 
both  unite  firmly  without  seriously  checking  plant  ac- 
tivity and  continue  growth  until  normal  fruit  is  ripened. 

205.  Common  rules  of  graftage.  Graftage  in  one  form 
or  another  and  with  various  species  of  plants  may  be 
done  during  almost  any  month  provided  the  method  be 
adapted  to  the  time  of  year  and  to  other  conditions. 
Always  it  is  essential  that  the  parts  fit  snugly.  Prefer- 
ably the  cambium  layer  of  the  cion  should  be  in  intimate 
contact  with  that  of  the  stock.  This  layer  is  most  active 
during  early  spring  when  the  buds  are  swelling  and  the 
leaves  are  expanding.  A  second  period  of  activity  occurs 
usually  soon  after  midsummer,  but  sometimes  not  until 
early  fall,  dependent  largely  upon  the  amount  of  moisture 
in  the  soil.  During  these  two  periods  wounds  heal  most 
rapidly  and  union  between  stock  and  cion  is  most  cer- 
tain. At  other  times,  since  the  cambium  becomes  firmer 


150  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

and  less  distinct  because  of  the  development  of  other  tis- 
sues from  it,  the  union  of  stock  and  cion  is  less  sure. 
At  such  seasons  it  is  also  more  important  to  cover  the 
wounds  to  prevent  or  check  loss  of  moisture  from  the 
wounds. 

Wax  (285)  is  usually  used  in  outdoor  work  where  the 
wood  itself  is  cut,  but  where  only  the  bark  is  cut,  as  in 
budding,  it  is  necessary  to  bind  only  the  bark  firmly 
over  the  bud  and  the  wound  until  the  union  is  complete. 
Then  the  bindings  must  be  cut  to  prevent  strangulation. 


FIG.    133-STEAM   TREE   DIGGER   IN    BIG   NURSERY 

Steam  tree  diggers   are   used  only  in   the  largest  nurseries.     They  are  very  satis- 
factory 

It  is  an  erroneous  theory  that  cleft  grafts  will  die  if  the 
adjacent  bark  of  the  stock  is  wounded  seriously.  The 
bark  serves  scarcely  a  greater  purpose  than  that  of 
protecting  the  tissues  beneath.  Cions  often  grow  in  the 
almost  total  absence  of  the  bark  of  the  stock,  provided 
proper  protection  is  given  and  the  formation  of  new  bark 
thus  encouraged. 

It  is  necessary  that  each  cion  have  at  least  one  sturdy 
bud.  As  a  rule,  only  mature  buds,  or  those  approximately 
mature,  are  employed,  though  in  herbaceous  grafting 
younger  ones  may  be  used.  Cions  may  be  inserted  in 
whole  or  piece  roots,  crowns,  trunks,  branches ;  in  fact, 


URAFTAGE GEX KK AL  CO X S 1  DERATIONS         1 5 1 

any  part  that  will  meet  the  requirements  of  cion  nutri- 
tion, as  tubers  of  dahlia,  potato,  sweet  potato.  The  way 
of  setting  may  vary  from  merely  placing  a  bud  beneath 
the  bark  to  inserting  a  woody  cion  in  the  wood  of  a 
stock,  as  in  cleft  grafting.  Again  the  work  may  be  done 
with  dormant  specimens  at  any  time  of  year  or  upon 
active  wood  during  the  growing  season.  The  methods 
and  variations  are  countless;  but  in  general  only  a  few 
are  simple  and  quick  enough  to  be  of  wide  or  general  use. 
The  others  are  more  for  the  specialist  and  for  finicky  sub- 
jects which  the  average  nurseryman,  gardener  or  florist 
will  not  "fuss  with." 


CHAPTER  XI 
IS  GRAFTAGE  DEVITALIZING? 

206.  Points  involved  in  discussion. — Nowadays  we  hear 
little  discussion  as  to  whether  or  not  graftage  is  a  de- 
vitalizing process.  Perhaps  this  is  largely  because  of 
investigations  made  at  various  domestic  and  foreign  ex- 
periment stations  and  teachings  of  agricultural  colleges 
and  schools  at  home  and  abroad.  But  even  so  late  as  the 
early  nineties,  discussion  was  rife  and  even  such  well- 
known  writers  as  Burbidge  of  Ireland  and  Bailey  of  the 
United  States  took  opposite  sides.  Beginning  about  a 
decade  later  Lucien  Daniel  and  other  European  inves- 
tigators began  to  present  results  of  their  exhaustive 
studies  which  as  yet  seem  to  have  made  little  impression 
in  America.  As  Daniel  is  copiously  quoted  in  this 
volume,  it  is  thought  advisable  to  present  the  picture  of 
conditions  as  they  existed  in  the  early  nineties  before 
he  began  to  publish  his  findings.  Therefore  the  next  few 
paragraphs  have  been  condensed  from  an  address  by 
Bailey  before  the  Peninsula  Horticultural  Society  at 
Dover,  Delaware,  in  1892. 

To  the  popular  mind  graftage  seems  mysterious.  People  look 
upon  it  as  akin  to  magic,  opposed  to  nature.  Strange,  for  the 
operation  is  simple !  The  process  of  union  is  nothing  more  than 
the  healing  of  a  wound.  It  is  not  more  mysterious  than  rooting  of 
cuttings.  Natural  grafts  are  fairly  common  among  forest  trees. 
Occasionally  union  is  so  complete  the  foster  stock  entirely  sup- 
ports and  nourishes  the  other.  Stem  cuttings,  however,  are  rare 
among  wild  plants ;  in  fact,  there  is  in  the  North  but  one  common 
instance :  certain  brittle  willows  whose  twigs  drop  in  moist  places 
and  sometimes  take  root. 

Why  is  union  of  cion  and  stock  any  more  mysterious  or  unusual 
than  rooting  of  cuttings?  Is  it  not  simpler  and  more  normal?  A 
wounded  surface  heals  over  to  protect  the  plant.  When  two 
wounded  surfaces  of  consanguineous  plants  are  closely  applied, 
nothing  is  more  natural  than  that  the  nascent  cells  should  interlock 
and  unite.  But  why  bits  of  stem  should  throw  out  roots  from 


154 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


their  lower  portion  and  leaves  from  their  upper  portion  when  both 
ends  may  be  to  every  human  sense  exactly  alike,  is  a  mystery. 

Tt  does  not  follow  from  these  propositions  that  graftage  is  a  de- 
sirable method  of  multiplying  plants,  but  simply  that  direct  and 
positive  evidence  is  needed.  Much  has  been  said  concerning  the 
merits  of  graftage.  Opponents  have  made  sweeping  statements  of 
the  perniciousness  of  the  system.  Discussion  started  in.  an  English 
journal  from  an  editorial  which  opened  as  follows. 


4.  Waxing, 
broken    off. 


FIG.    135 — STAGES    OF    CLEFT    GRAFTING 

Sawing   limb   to    form    stock.      2.   Making   the    cleft.      3.    Placing   the    cions. 
5.  Cion  growing.  In  this  case  both  cions  grew,  but  one  was  accidentally 


"We  doubt  if  there  is  a  greater  nuisance  in  the  whole  practice 
of  gardening  than  the  art  of  grafting.  It  is  very  clever,  it  is  very 
interesting,  but  it  will  be  no  .great  loss  if  it  is  abolished  altogether. 
It  is  for  the  convenience  of  the  nurserymen  that  it  is  done  in  nine 
cases  out  of  ten,  and  in  nearly  all  instances  it  is  not  only  needless, 
but  harmful.  ...  If  we  made  the  nurserymen  give  us  things  on 
their  own  roots,  they  would  find  some  quick  means  of  doing  so." 

For  two  years  discussion  continued,  and  many  excellent  observers 
took  part.  Some  of  the  denunciations  of  graftage  are  [condensed 
and  the  statements  of  various  writers  run  together]  as  follows: 


IS  GRAFTAGE  DEVITALIZING?  155 

"Grafting  is  always  a  makeshift,  and  very  often  a  fraud.  It 
is  in  effect  a  kind  of  adulteration.  Grafted  plants  are  open  to  all 
kinds  of  accidents  and  disaster,  and  often  soil,  climate  or  cultivator 
are  blamed  for  evils  which  originated  in  the  nursery.  If,  in  cer- 
tain cases,  grafting  as  a  convenience  must  be  resorted  to,  let  it  be 
root  grafting,  so  that  eventually  the  cion  will  root  itself  in  a  natural 
way.  Toy  games,  such  as  grafting  and  budding,  must  be  abandoned 
and  real  work  begun  on  some  sensible  plan.  Any  tree  that  will 
not  succeed  on  its  own  roots  had  better  go  to  the  rubbish  pile  at 
once.  We  want  no  coddled  or  grafted  stuff  when  own-rooted 
things  are  in  all  ways  better,  healthier  and  longer  lived." 

These  quotations  show  the  positiveness  with  which  graftage  has 
been  assailed.  As  presumption  is  in  favor  of  any  universal  prac- 
tice they  possess  extraordinary  interest. 

The  assumptions  underlying  these  denunciations  are  three :  1. 
Citation  of  instances  in  which  graftage  has  given  pernicious  re- 
sults. 2.  Affirmation  that  the  process  is  unnatural.  3.  The  state- 
ment that  own-rooted  plants  are  better  than  graft-rooted  plants. 

t.  Citations  of  injurious  effects  of  graftage  are  usually  confined  to 
ornamental  plants,  commonly  the  tendency  of  stocks  to  sucker  and 
choke  grafts.  Conversely,  in  numerous  instances  it  does  not  occur ; 
for  instance,  in  peach,  apple,  pear,  and  many  other  fruit  trees,  and 
in  very  many  ornamentals.  In  fact,  it  is  probably  no  more  common 
than  is  suckering  of  plants  grown  from  cuttings;  for  instance, 
cutting-grown  or  sucker-grown  plums.  These  remarks  apply  with 
equal  force  to  all  citations  of  the  ill  effects  of  graftage;  the  cases 
simoly  show  that  the  operation  is  open  to  objections  in  the  partic- 
ular instances  cited ;  no  proof  that  with  other  plants  graftage  may 
not  be  a  success.  Graftage  lias  been  indiscriminately  employed, 
and  there  have  been  many  failures,  but  this  does  not  prove  the 
process  wrong.  If  there  are  plants  upon  which  graftage  is  success- 
ful the  operation  itself  is  not  wrong,  however  many  cases  there 
may  be  to  which  it  is  not  adapted. 

2.  That    graftage    is    unnatural,    and   therefore    pernicious,    is    a 
fallacy.     There  is  nothing  to   show  it  is  anything  more   unnatural 
than  making  cuttings.     If  naturalness  is  proved  by   frequency  of 
occurrence  in  nature,  then  graftage  is  the  more  natural.     But  the 
whole    discussion   of   mere   naturalness   of    any   operation   is   aside 
from    the    question ;    for    every     garden     operation — transplanting, 
pruning  or  tillage — is  in  some  sense  unnatural :  yet  these  "unnat- 
ural processes"  sometimes  increase  plant  longevity  and  virility. 

3.  An    assumption    held    with    dogmatic    positiveness    by    many 
writers   is   that   own-rooted    plants    are    better    than    foster-rooted 
ones.     If  mere  rarity  or  lack  of  occurrence  in  nature  is  no  proof 
of     perniciousness,      the    statement    admits    of    argument    just    as 
much  as  any  other  topic.     The  citation  of  ill  effects  of  graftage  is 
no  proof  that  own-rooted  plants   are   better  if   there   should   still 
remain  cases  in  which  no  injurious  effects  follow.     If  it  is  true  that 
"own-rooted  things  are  in  all  ways  infinitely  better,  healthier,  and 


1^6  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

longer  lived"  than  foster-rooted  plants,  and  if  "grafted  plants  of 
all  kinds  are  open  to  all  sorts  of  accidents  and  disaster,"  then  the 
proposition  should  admit  of  abundant  proof.  The  subject  may  be 
analyzed  by  discussing  the  following  questions:  a.  Is  the  union 
always  imperfect?  b.  Are  grafted  plants  less  virile,  shorter  lived 
than  own-rooted  ones? 

a.  It  is  well  known  that  the  physical  union  between  cion  and 
stock  is  often  imperfect  and  remains  a  point  of  weakness  through- 
out the  life  of  a  plant  (201).    But  this  is  not  always  true.    Scores  of 
plants  make  perfect  physical  union  with  other  plants  of  their  own 
species,  or  even  with  other  species.    Therefore,  these  alone  are  the 
plants  that  should  be  grafted.    The  best  proof  that  can  be  adduced 
that  the  union  may  be  physically  perfect,  is  in  the  micro-photograph 
published  by   Prof.   C.   S.   Crandall.     [Similar  ones  are  shown  on 
pages  138,  140.]  The  cells  are  knit  together  so  completely  it  is  im- 
possible to  determine  the  exact  line  of  union. 

Professor  Crandall  also  figures  a  microscopic  section  of  an  apple 
graft  in  which  the  union  is  very  poor,  but  this  graft  is  made  in  a 
different  manner,  another  proof  that  operation  should  be  suited 
to  subject.  These  were  grafts  made  upon  nursery  stock.  It  would 
appear  that  if  the  union  were  good  at  the  expiration  of  the  first 
year  it  would  remain  good  throughout  the  plant's  life.  In  order  to 
test  this  point  two  apple  trees  15  years  old  and  over  six  inches  in 
diameter  grafted  at  the  surface  of  the  ground  in  the  nursery,  were 
split  into  many  pieces  in  the  presence  of  two  critical  observers,  but 
no  mark  whatever  could  be  found  of  the  old  union.  [Similar  con- 
ditions may  be  seen  on  page  148.] 

b.  Are  grafted  plants  shorter  lived  than  others?     It  is  evident  that 
a  poor  union  or  an  uncongenial  stock  will  make  the  resulting  graft 
weak,  a  further  proof  that  indiscriminate  graftage  is  to   be  dis- 
couraged.    But  these  facts  do  not  affirm  the  question. 

Many  persons  hold  that  any  asexual  propagation  is  in  the  end 
devitalizing,  since  the  legitimate  method  of  propagation  is  by  means 
of  seeds.  This  notion  appears  to  be  confirmed  by  Darwin's  conclu- 
sions that  the  ultimate  function  of  sex  is  really  to  vitalize  and 
strengthen  the  offspring  following  the  union  of  characters  or 
powers  of  two  parents;  for  if  the  expensive  sexual  propagation 
invigorates  the  type,  asexual  propagation  would  seem  to  weaken  it. 
It  does  not  follow,  however,  that  because  sexual  reproduction  is 
good,  asexual  increase  is  bad,  but  rather  that  one  is  as  a  rule  better 
than  the  other,  without  saying  that  the  other  is  injurious.  Some 
plants  have  been  asexually  propagated  for  centuries  with  appar- 
ently no  decrease  of  vitality.  This  fact,  however,  does  not  prove 
that  the  plant  may  not  have  positively  increased  in  virility  if  sex- 
ual propagation  had  been  employed.  The  presumption  is  always 
in  favor  of  sexual  reproduction,  a  point  which  everyone  will  admit. 

Here  is  where  graftage  has  an  enormous  theoretical  advantage 
over  cuttage  or  any  other  asexual  multiplication :  the  grafted 
plant  springs  from  sexual  reproduction.  If  the  union  is  physically 
perfect,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  there  is  reason  to  suppose  that 


IS  GRAFTAGE  DEVITALIZING?  157 

grafting  between  consanguineous  plants  is  better  than  propagating 
by  cuttings  or  layers.  In  other  words,  graftage  is  really  sexual 
multiplication;  so  if  seeds  have  an  advantage  over  buds  in  forming 
the  plant  foundation,  graftage  is  a  more  perfect  method  than  any 
other  artificial  practice — in  fact  the  nearest  approach  to  direct  sex- 
ual reproduction.  So  when  seeds  cannot  be  relied  upon  wholly, 
as  they  cannot,  for  the  reproduction  of  many  garden  varieties, 
graftage  is  the  ideal  practice;  always  provided,  of  course,  that  it 
is  properly  done  between  congenial  subjects.  It  is  not  to  be  ex- 
pected that  the  practice  is  adapted  to  all  plants,  any  more  than  is 
the  making  of  cuttings  of  leaves  or  of  stems,  but  this  fact  cannot 
be  held  to  invalidate  the  system. 

Is  there  direct  evidence  to  show  that  "grafting  is  always  a  make- 
shift," a  "toy  game,"  that  "grafted  plants  are  open  to  all  sorts  of 
accidents  and  disaster,"  that  "own-rooted  things  are  better,  healthier, 
and  longer  lived"?  These  statements  allow  of  no  exception;  they 
are  universal  and  iron-bound.  If  the  questions  were  to  be  fully 
met,  we  should  need  to  discuss  the  whole  art  of  graftage  in  all  its 
detail,  but  if  there  is  one  well-authenticated  case  in  which  a  grafted 
plant  is  as  strong,  as  hardy,  as  vigorous,  as  productive  and  as  long 
lived  as  seedlings  or  as  cutting  plants,  we  shall  have  established  the 
fact  that  the  operation  is  not  necessarily  bad,  and  have  created  the 
presumption  that  other  cases  exist.  An  instance  will  serve. 

In  the  forties  about  100  apple  trees  were  grown  from  seeds  on  a 
Michigan  farm,  but  as  most  of  the  fruit  was  poor  or  indifferent  the 
trees  were  top-grafted  in  the  most  desultory  manner,  some  being 
grafted  piecemeal  with  some  of  the  original  branches  allowed  to 
remain  permanently,  while  others  were  entirely  changed  over  at 
once;  a  few  of  them  grafted  on  the  trunk  when  as  large  as 
broomsticks,  the  whole  top  having  been  cut  off  when  the  oper- 
ation was  performed.  A  few  trees  which  chanced  to  bear  toler- 
able fruit  were  not  grafted. 

Many  of  the  trees  died  from  indeterminable  causes;  fully  half  of 
the  deaths  have  been  seedling  trees  for  many  years  as  vigorous 
as  the  grafted  ones.  Of  the  trees  that  remain  the  grafted  specimens 
are  in  every  way  as  vigorous,  hardy  and  productive  as  the  others. 
Some  of  these  trees  have  two  tops,  one  grafted  shoulder  high  in 
the  early  days,  the  other  in  the  resulting  top  many  years  later. 
Those  trees  which  contain  both  original  branches  and  grafted  ones 
in  the  same  top  show  similar  results — the  foreign  branches  are  in 
every  way  as  vigorous,  virile  and  productive  as  the  others,  and  are 
proving  to  be  as  long-lived. 

This  positive  experiment  compassed  by  the  lifetime  of  one  man 
shows  that  own-rooted  trees  are  not  always  "infinitely  better, 
healthier,  and  longer-lived"  than  grafted  plants.  The  illustration 
may  be  considered  typical  of  thousands  of  orchards,  containing 
various  fruits  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 

The  fact  may  be  cited  that  the  old  seedling  orchards  about  the 
country  are  much  more  uneven  and  contain  more  dead  trees  or 
vacant  places  than  commercial  grafted  orchards  of  even  the  same 


158  PLANT     PROPAGATION 

age.  This  is  due  to  the  struggle  for  existence  in  the  old  orchards 
by  which  the  weak  trees  have  disappeared,  while  the  grafted  or- 
chards, being  made  up  of  selected  varieties  of  known  virility  and 
hardiness,  have  remained  more  nearly  intact.  If  the  seedling  or- 
chards have  suffered  more  than  the  grafted  ones  it  must  be  because 
they  have  had  more  weak  spots. 

The  universal  favor  in  which  graftage  is  held  in  America  is 
itself  a  strong  presumption  in  its  favor.  Growers  differ  among 
themselves  as  to  the  best  methods  of  performing  the  operation, 
but  an  intelligent  American  will  not  condemn  the  system  as  nec- 
essarily bad  or  wrong. 

Of  the  vast  number  of  grafted  and  budded  trees  sold  annually  by 
nurserymen  probably  half  die  from  various  causes  before  they 
reach  bearing  age,  but  graftage  itself  plays  a  small  part  in  the 
failure,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  case  of  grapes  and  small  fruits, 
which  outnumber  the  tree  fruits  in  nursery  stock,  and  of  which 
less  than  one-half  reach  maturity,  and  yet  these  are  cutting- 
grown  plants.  It  is  in  nineteen  cases  out  of  twenty  the  care- 
lessness of  the  grower  which  brings  failure. 

It  is  impossible,  if  one  considers  the  facts  broadly  and  candidly, 
to  arrive  at  any  other  conclusion  than  this :  Graftage  is  not 
suited  to  all  plants,  but  in  those  to  which  it  is  adapted — and  they 
are  many — it  is  not  a  devitalizing  process. 


CHAPTER  XII 
DANIEL'S  EXPERIMENTS  AND  CONCLUSIONS 

207.  Functional  capacity  of  plants. — Daniel  gives  the 
following-  broad  generalizations  on  the  relationship  be- 
tween absorption,  assimilation  and  transpiration  in 
plants.  By  functional  capacity  is  meant  the  processes 
involved  in  the  absorption  and  utilization  of  crude  ma- 
terials by  the  plant.  If  the  function  of  absorption  or  the 
total  absorption  from  external  surroundings  be  repre- 
sented by  CA,  and  the  functional  capacity  of  consump- 
tion or  total  consumption  at  the  points  where  the  sap  is 
used  up  be  represented  by  CV,  then  in  a  plant  in  com- 
plete equilibrium  as  regards  its  general  nutrition  CV= 
CA  and  ^-  =1.  If,  however,  aerial  consumption  is 
greater  than  the  usual  subterranean  absorption,  then  the 
formula  c"->  1.  This  corresponds  to  growth  in  dry  or 
poor  soil.  When  absorption  is  greater  than  consumption, 
as  in  moist  or  rich  soils,  the  formula  becomes  ^  «j 

Conditions  similar  to  these  are  sometimes  brought 
about  by  grafting.  The  cicatrization  of  the  grafted 
plants  and  the  intercalated  tissue  between  stock  and 
cion  interfere  with  the  condition  of  sap,  modifying  it 
both  in  quantity  and  quality.  These  modifications  of 
the  cion  are  equivalent  to  growth  in  a  drier,  poorer 
medium  than  the  normal.  In  grafting  it  is  also  necessary 
to  keep  in  mind  the  relative  functional  capacities  of  the 
two  grafted  plants.  For  example,  if  the  functional  ca- 
pacity of  consumption  is  greater  in  the  cion  than  in  the 
stock  this  condition  becomes  exaggerated  by  the  scar 
of  cicatrization  when  the  two  plants  are  grafted,  and  the 
graft  either  fails  to  take  or  makes  a  poor  growth,  cor- 
responding to  that  in  poor  dry  soil.  The  chance  for  mak- 

169 


i6o 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


ing  a  successful  graft  in  such  a  case  is  increased  if  the 
development  of  adventitious  roots  from  the  cion  is  en- 
couraged, so  that  assimilation  may  correspond  more 
closely  to  a  normal  absorption  of  the  cion. 

208.  Graftage  laws. — Daniel  draws  the  following  con- 
clusions from  certain  of  his  experiments :  1,  The  relative 
affinity  or  difference  of  functional  capacities  between 
stock  and  cion  at  different  periods  of  the  symbiosis 
plays  a  very  important  role  in  the  success,  duration, 
and  biology  of  all  grafts.  2,  Environ- 
ment, weather,  etc.,  particularly  sud- 
den changes  of  environment,  have  com- 
siderable  reaction  on  the  whole,  a  re- 
action greater  than  in  normal  plants. 
3,  Various  irregularities  like  diseases 
result  from  faulty  nutrition,  due  to 
badly  chosen  grafts. 

209.  Disease    due    to  grafting.  —  A 
study  of  grafts  between  various  species 
of  Solanum  (pepper,  tomato,  eggplant, 
etc.)  has  led  Daniel  to  conclude  that 
many  of  the  physiological  troubles  of 
plants  commonly  considered     as     dis- 
eases are   in   reality   due   to  the   em- 
ployment of  antagonistic  stocks     and 
cions. 

210.  Grafts  are  of  two  classes,*  anatomical 
(grafts  by  approach)  and  physiological  (true)  ; 
the  latter  divided  into  two  groups,  ordinary 
and     mixed.       In     the     ordinary     the     stock 
is     deprived     entirely     of     its     assimilating 
apparatus  (the  green  parts)  and  the  cion  of  its 

absorbing  parts  (the  roots).  In  the  mixed  graft  proper  the  stock 
may  preserve  part  or  all  of  its  assimilating  apparatus  and  the 
cion  part  or  all  of  its  absorbing  apparatus.  In  grafting  by  ap- 
proach success  is  attained  when  the  two  plants  grow  together  in 
an  enduring  manner  so  that  if  separated  a  wound  is  formed. 
The  graft  proper  is  said  to  succeed  when,  after  having  lived  a 
certain  time  on  the  stock,  the  cion  produces  fertile  seeds. 

*L    Daniel,  Rev,  Gen,  Bot.  12,  summarized  in  Ex.  Sta.  Record,  Vol.  12,  pp.  947,- 
952.  ' 


FIG.    136 — 
YOUNG       APPLE 

ROOT  GRAFT 
This    is   student   work. 


DANIEL'S  EXPERIMENTS  AND  CONCLUSIONS 


161 


The  conditions  of  success  of  grafts  are  of  two  kinds,  extrinsic 
(conditions  independent  of  the  nature  of  the  plant — as  soil,  tem- 
perature, etc.)  and  intrinsic  (conditions  dependent  upon  the 
peculiar  nature  of  the  plants  grafted,  as  method  of  cicatrization, 
analogy  and  botanical  relations.  The  extrinsic  conditions  neces- 
sary to  observe  by  approach  are :  1,  A  temperature  suf- 
ficient to  produce  primary  tissue;  2,  prevention  of  all  conditions 
which  cause  rotting  or  drying  of  the  cicatrized  meristem  (pri- 
mary tissue)  ;  and  3,  maintenance  of  adherence  of  the  wounds  by 
the  aid  of  ligatures  susceptible  of  being  loosened  progressively 
with  the  growth  of  the  plant. 

211.  Cicatrization.— Plants  cicatrize 
their  wounds  either  by  simple  drying 
of  the  cut  tissues  and  neighboring 
cells  or  by  regeneration  of  tissues  by 
the  aid  of  the  primary  tissue.  All 
methods  have  failed  with  the  mono- 
cotyledons and  cryptogams  experi- 
mented upon.  Hence  Daniel  concludes 
that  grafting  by  approach  is  impos- 
sible with  plants  that  cicatrize  their 
wounds  by  desiccation  of  the  wounded 
cells  and  neighboring  tissues ;  i.  e.,  are 
incapable  of  regenerating  tissue. 

In  order  to  learn  whether  only 
plants  with  cambium  may  be  grafted, 
as  generally  believed,  Daniel  worked 
with  many  monocots  and  cryptogams 
and  secured  a  perfect  cicatrization  by 
the  tongue  graft  with  gladiolus,  day 
lily  (Funkia  cordata),  Caladium,  white 
lily  (Globba  coccinea)  and  several 
others,  even  with  one  of  the  club 
mosses  (Selaginella  arborea) .  The 
success  of  these  grafts  shows  that 
grafting  by  approach  is  possible 
with  certain  monocots  and  that  the 

presence  of  the  cambium  layer  is  not  always  necessary  to  the  success 
of  all  grafts  by  approach. 

212.  Analogy.— The  difference  in  hardness  and  the  histological 
nature  of  woods  may  not  be  an  obstacle  to  anatomical  union.  A 
natural,  distinct  cicatrization  occurred 
between  grafted  oak  and  beech,  and 
between  fir  and  linden,  oak  and  ash 
united  by  their  stems  and  oak  and 
walnut  by  their  roots.  Rose  and  grape 
have  also  been  united.  Nevertheless, 
the  graft  by  approach  does  not  always 
succeed  between  plants  so  different- 
Daniel  tried  in  vain  to  graft  horse 


FIG. 


137— GRAFT      WRAPPING 

MACHINE 
A   great  time  saver 


FIG.    138— GRAFTERS'   OR 
BUDDERS'     KIT 


Tools,  cions  etc.,  are  carried  thus. 


chestnut  on  common  chestnut. 


ie>2 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


FIG.   139— DIGGING    LARGE    TREES    FOR    SHIPMENT 

I.  Forks  are  used  to  reduce  injury  to  the  roots.    2.    Roots  are  wrapped  in  moss 
and  straw. 


DANIEL'S  EXPERIMENTS  AND  CONCLUSIONS  163 

Accumulation  of  reserve  material  in  vegetative  plant  parts  has  no 
special  importance  in  grafting,  as  proved  by  grafting  turnip  and 
cabbage,  kale  and  kohl  rabi,  Brussels  sprouts  and  kohl  rabi,  and 
kohl  rabi  and  cauliflower.  [These  plants,  though  very  different  in 
form  as  cultivated,  are  all,  except  turnip,  varieties  of  one  species, 
Brassica  oleracea — M.  G.  K].  Even  grafting  by  approach 
between  roots  of  lettuce  and  aged  salisfy  succeeded,  though 
the  inulin  of  the  salsify  did  not  circulate  in  the  lettuce  cells.  If  the 
cell  contents  of  one  of  the  plants  approached  are  toxic  for  the 
other,  the  graft  fails. 

If  a  large  and  a  small  variety  are  grafted  on  each  other  the 
larger  will  develop  to  the  detriment  of  the  smaller,  which  will  re- 
main nearly  dwarf.  Plants  of  different  forms,  like  kale  and  cauli- 
flower [see  bracket  note  above],  may  make  good  unions.  Plants 
in  active  growth  may  be  grafted  by  approach  on  plants  at  rest; 
e.  g.,  seedling  cabbage  several  weeks  old  was  grafted  in  spring  with 
perfect  success  on  a  turnip  whose  root  was  fully  formed.  Grafting 
by  approach  succeeds  between  annuals,  biennials,  and  perennials; 
also  between  biennials  and  perennials.  The  fact  that  fir  and  linden, 
and  Araha  Spinosa  and  A.  Sieboldii  were  grafted  by  approach 
shows  deciduous  and  evergreen  plants  may  be  intergrafted. 

213.  Extrinsic  conditions. — \\ith  grafts  proper  all  extrinsic  con- 
ditions are  present,  but  in  cutting  off  the  top  of  the  stock  and  sup- 
pressing the  absorbing  apparatus  of  the  cion,  there  is  danger  of 
the  death  of  both  plants.     Another  fundamental  extrinsic  condition 
of  success  must  be  maintenance  of  life  in  the  two  plants  till  suc- 
cess   is    complete..    The    cion    is    sometimes     preserved     by     being 
placed  in  water  as  soon  as  made  to  prevent  its  drying  out,  keep 
the  surface  clean,  and  prevent  the  formation  of  sugar  or  other  ma- 
terial on  the  cut  surfaces.     This  might  interfere  with  the  free  pas- 
sage of  sap  from  stock  to  cion. 

In  order  that  the  cion  may  grow  its  turgescence  must  be  re- 
established. This  is  secured  by  the  imbibition  of  the  crude  sap  of 
the  stock  by  the  cells  of  the  cion,  and  occurs  more  quickly  ac- 
cording as  the  crude  sap  is  presented  in  considerable  quantity, 
but  also  more  quickly  if  the  initial  turgescence  of  the  tissues  of 
the  cion  has  not  been  diminished  during  the  preparation  of  the 
graft  and  its  being  put  in  place.  This  explains  why  it  is  necessary 
to  operate  quickly  and  why  cuttings  are  often  made  under  water 
where  the  cion  preserves  much  of  its  turgescence  and  produces 
good  results.  It  also  accounts  for  the  good  effects  of  wax-like 
material  used  in  open  air  grafting;  the  utility  of  the  collar  graft, 
because  the  osmotic  force  is  strongest  at  this  level ;  and  the  im- 
portance of  the  time  of  day  in  operating,  because  the  osmotic  force 
varies,  being  strongest  in  the  evening  (hence  the  greater  success 
then).  The  re-establishment  of  turgescence  in  the  graft  is  con- 
sidered fundamental  to  success,  therefore  it  is  impossible  to  graft 
parts  incapable  of  retaining  turgescence  or  which  do  not  possess  it. 

214.  Intrinsic  conditions.— ]  n   the  graft  proper  plants  incapable 
of  regenerating  their  tissues  cannot  be  grafted.     In  gladiolus  and 


164 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


Funkia  cases  cited  above,  the  anatomical  cicatrization  was  effected  by 
the  parenchymatic  tissues.  No  liber  or  fibro-vascular  structure  was 
observed  to  form  between  cion  and  stock.  Thus  the  transport  of 
sap  was  hindered,  and  sooner  or  later  both  parts  died.  By  util- 
izing the  aerial  roots  of  some  monpcots  to  supplement  the  absorp- 
tion of  the  cion,  success  was  attained  with  several  plants.  This 
shows  that  failure  of  grafts  with  monocots  capable  of  regenerating 
their  tissues  is  due  to  insufficient  vascular  communication,  since  it 
becomes  possible  when  a  complementary  apparatus  is  supplied. 

Plants  with  active  cambium  layers,  which 
may  be  inarched,  cannot  always  be  grafted  by 
the  graft  proper,  since  the  common  European 
bean  (Fabia)  and  the  kidney  bean,  which  graft 
easily  by  approach,  have  always  failed  when 
grafted  by  the  graft  proper,  no  matter  what 
precautions  were  taken. 

Differences  in  wood  and  bark  are  not  ob- 
stacles to  success  in  the  graft  proper.  Thus 
there  is  a  great  difference  in  the  thickness  and 
strength  of  safflower  and  annual  sunflower; 
between  sunflower  and  Jerusalem  artichoke; 
young  cabbage  and  root  of  turnip;  root  of 
cultivated  carrot  and  that  of  fennel;  neverthe- 
less, these  [pairs  of]  plants  united  perfectly. 
These  same  facts  were  observed  with  trees; 
the  graft  succeeded  between  chestnut  and  oak, 
pear  and  hawthorn,  quince  and  hawthorn,  in 
spite  of  marked  differences  in  the  barks.  From 
these  and  other  grafts  it  is  concluded  that  hard- 
ness, density,  and  elasticity  of  wood  are  second- 
ary in  the  success  and  duration  of  grafts,  but 
it  is  not  the  same  with  conduction. 

When  the  differences  of  sap  conductions  are  too  great,  grafts  will 
not  succeed;  e.  g.,  lilac  and  ash,  cherry  and  almond,  Cotoneaster 
and  chestnut,  which  grow  the  first  year,  then  die  without  fructifying. 
The  duration  of  the  graft  is  then  very  variable  and  depends  for  its 
value  on  differences  in  conduction  between  cion  and  stock.  Thus 
pear  grafted  on  quince  endures  for  a  shorter  period  than  pear  on 
pear  seedling  [the  Yeoman's  dwarf  pear  orchard  at  Walworth, 
New  York,  bore  profitable  crops  for  over  50  years!  M.  G.  K.] 
When  the  differences  of  conduction  are  too  great  between  plants, 
the  mixed  graft  is  sometimes  used  successfully  where  the  ordinary 
graft  fails.  By  using  it  Daniel  united  Vernonia  praealta  and  Xan- 
thium  macro  car pum,  which  failed  by  ordinary  grafting. 

Daniel  has  succeeded  in  grafting  plants  whose  cell  contents  pre- 
sented very  marked  differences;  e.  g.,  Chicoreacese  and  Euphor- 
biaceae,  which  have  different  latex  contents.  Previously  it  had  been 
held  that  plants  with  milky  juice  could  not  be  grafted. 

Grafts  were  made  to  determine  what  influence  reserve  material 
in  plants  may  have  on  grafting.  The  easy  grafts  on  roots  of  car- 


FIG.   140— 


CUTTING  ON 
DAHLIA  TUBER 


DANIEL'S  EXPERIMENTS  AND  CONCLUSIONS  165 

rot  and  parsnip  show  that  the  presence  of  reserve  material  is  no 
obstacle  to  success.  Those  of  tomato  on  potato,  annual  sunflower 
on  Jerusalem  artichoke,  etc.,  show  that  the  formation  of  tubers 
on  the  stock  takes  place  even  when  the  cion  is  incapable  of  pro- 
ducing tubers  itself.  In  grafting  in  September  a  young  cabbage  on 
a  purple-topped  turnip,  which  would  have  begun  to  thicken  its  root, 
in  October,  the  thickening  came  in  the  April  following,  when  the 
cion  became  plethoric.  It  is,  then,  the  cion  which  by  its  mode  of  nu- 
trition commands  the  function  of  reserve  material  in  the  stock. 


FIG.    141— SWELLINGS   DUE   TO      GRAFTAGE 

1.  Large  growing   apple  on   small   growing  stock.     2.  Swelling  of  tissues   at  point 
of  union.     3.   Pear  on  small  growing  stock. 

The  inverse  graft  of  plants  susceptible  of  forming  tubers  on  & 
plant  which  does  not  yield  tubers  may  be  realized.  Daniel  suc- 
ceeded in  grafting  Helianthns  loetiflorns,  a  species  with  an  enlarged 
rhizome,  on  H.  Animus,  an  annual  species  which  does  not  form 
tubers.  <The  cion  grown  entirely  above  the  soil  was  unable  to 
form  tubers.  The  reserves  passed  into  another  form  in  the  stock, 
which  took  a  development  altogether  abnormal  and  became  very 
ligneous.  Potato  grafted  on  eggplant  and  on  tomato  has  been  ob- 
served to  form  aerial  tubers  and  thus  store  up  its  reserve  material. 

215.  Analogy  in  habitat  seems  to  be  a  more  or  less  important  fac- 
tor. Thus  Phlox  decussata,  which  grows  in  humid  soils,  has  not 
been  successfully  grafted  by  Daniel  on  P.  subulata,  which  grows  on 
dry  soils;  though  parsley,  which  prefers  a  dry  soil,  succeeds  when 
grafted  with  Sison  ammonium,  which  prefers  humid  soil.  In  the 
case  of  trees,  pears  are  grafted  on  quinces  in  rich  soil  and  on  pear 
seedlings  in  poor  soil,  etc.  Different  soils,  then,  are  not  the  most 
serious  obstacles  to  success  in  grafting,  but  they  seem  to  have  more 
or  less  marked  influence  on  the  duration  of  the  graft. 

If  a  dormant  ligneous  cion  is  grafted  on  an  active  ligneous 
stock,  success  follows,  but  does  not  follow  if  conditions  are  re- 
versed. With  herbaceous  plants,  an  active  cion  may  be  grafted  on 


i66 


PLANT     PROPAGATION 


a  dormant  stock  and  succeed.  When  cion  and  stock  do  not  come 
into  activity  about  the  same  time,  the  graft  may  succeed,  but  its 
duration  will  be  shortened. 

In  order  to  study  the  limits  of  the  possibility  of  grafting,  experi- 
ments were  made  with  Rosaceae,  Umbelliferae.  Leguminosae,  Crucif- 
erae,  Solanaceae  and  Compositae.  With  Rosaceae,  Leguminosae 
and  Cruciferae  the  limit  of  grafting  seems  to  be  confined  to  genera 
of  the  same  tribe.  With  Solanaceae  and  Umbelliferae  grafts  were 
successfully  made  between  different  tribes.  With  Composite  the 
limit  seems  to  be  the  sub-family. 

216.  Herbaceous  grafting  has  been  successfully  practiced  ex- 
perimentally by  Daniel,*  with  pea  on  bean,  cabbage  on  kohl  rabi, 

turnip,  stock  and  other  re- 
lated plants,  fennel  on  wild 
carrot,  carrot  on  parsnip  and 
vice  versa,  celery  on  parsnip, 
winter  lettuce  on  wild  prick- 
ly lettuce,  spring  lettuce  on 
salsify,  salsify  on  scorzonera, 
toadflax  on  snapdragon,  al- 
mond, peach  and  prune  on 
cherry. 

This  experimenter  also 
found :  that  grapes  will 
unite  between  genera  of 


FIG.    142 — BORDEAUX    MIXING    FOR    SMALL    NURSERY 

One  of  the  upper  barrels  contains  blue  stone  stock  solution,  the  other  lime 
solution.  The  tubs  are  used  to  dilute  these  solutions.  The  lower  barrel  mixes 
these  two  solutions  which  then  pass  as  one  to  the  spray  tank  through  a  sieve. 
A  larger  hose  would  be  a  decided  improvement. 


•Extended   summary   in   Experiment  Station    Record,  Vol.  5,  p. 


DANIELS   EXPERIMENTS  AND  CONCLUSIONS 


the  same  order ;  2,  hollow-stemmed  annuals  unite,  while 
the  pith  is  functional ;  3,  with  trees  the  union  is  easily  made  and 
the  swelling  at  the  point  of  union  is  reduced  to  a  minimum;  4. 
root  grafting  of  herbaceous  plants  is  most  successful ;  5,  duration 
of  grafted  plants  is  more  or  less  modified  by  the  graft,  a,  annuals 
on  biennials  or  perennials  continue  to  be  annuals,  i.  e.,  at  the  end 
of  the  growing  season  they  die  and  cause  the  partial  or  total 
death  of  the  stock;  b,  biennial  grafts  with  rare  exceptions  remain 
biennial  on  both  biennial  and  perennial  stocks  and  induce  the  death 
of  the  stocks ;  c,  perennial  grafts  on  annual  or  biennial  stocks  die 
with  the  stocks,  but  may  be  used  as  grafts  on  perennial  stocks 
prior  to  this  event.  6,  herbaceous  grafts  are  less  resistant  to  cold 
than  are  mature  wood  grafts;  7,  time  of  flowering  is  slightly  re- 
tarded among  annual  grafts,  and  at  least  for  the  first  year  among 
biennials  and  perennials ;  8,  stock 
.rtd  cion  are  influenced  reciprocally 
— sometimes  cion  controls  stock, 
sometimes  vice  versa,  and  some- 
times both  classes  of  cases  may  be 
found  in  the  one  kind  of  graft  but 
with  different  specimens.  9,  Cul- 
tivated varieties  grafted  on  wild  ones 
generally  show  deteriorated  qualit1 
in  the  fruit ;  10,  seed  produced  in 
such  cases  (9,  just  mentioned),  some 
seedlings  revert  to  the  wild  type  and 
largely  lose  value  as  food  plants 
hence  it  is  concluded  that  inferior 
stocks  should  not  be  selected  for 
grafting  when  seed  is  to  h 
saved  for  planting;  11,  reserve 
food  of  a  stock  is  rarely  utilized  by  the  graft  of  a  plant  of  another 
family. 

Circulation  of  liquids  in  grafted  plants  presents  two  extremes 
to  consider:  1.  cases  where  water  absorbed  by  the  stock  passes 
in  small  quantity  into  the  cion;  and  2,  where  it  is  abundant.  In 
the  former  (the  commoner)  the  cion  makes  less  vigorous  devel- 
opment but  flowers  and  fruits  more  abundantly  than  in  Case  2 
where  the  vessels  are  larger,  the  sprouts  more  vigorous  and  the 
flowers  and  fruits  less  abundant,  as  in  the  case  of  a  tree  too  well 
nourished.  At  first  these  phenomena  are  physical,  but  later  chem- 
ical changes  modify  the  cell  contents  as  shown  by  starch  or  sugar 
formation  under  the  influence  of  the  graft  in  certain  cases. 

217.  Reciprocal  influence  of  stock  and  cion. — Daniel  has  dem- 
onstrated both  direct  and  indirect  influences  of  stock  on  cion  in 
grafted  plants.  From  his  experiments  he  deduces  that  variations 
in  the  graft  may  be  due  to  changes  in  nutrition  or  may  be  specific ; 
that  is,  they  may  appear  in  particular  characters  of  stock  and  cion 
more  or  less  independently  of  environment.  The  effects  of  graft- 
ing on  the  general  nutrition  may  be  shown  in  four  ways. 


143— HANDY    STYLE    OF 
TREE     CALIPER 


i68 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


FIG.    144— WHY    ROOT    PRUNING    IS    DESIRABLE 

1.  Roots  of  evergreen  as  ordinarily  grown  in  nursery.  2.  Dotted  line  shows 
where  plant  would  be  dug  with  loss  of  roots.  3.  Evergreen  root  pruned  as 
shown  at  2  but  after  new  roots  have  developed.  Such  plants  are  well  worth 
their  extra  cost. 


DANIEL'S  EXPERIMENTS  AND  CONCLUSIONS  169 

1.  The  size  of  the  vegetative  organs  of  stock  and  cion  may  be 
modified.    If  a  herbaceous  plant  is  grafted  on  itself,  the  general 
nutrition  is  interrupted  in  inverse  proportion  to  the  activity  of  the 
cambium  layer  at  the  time  the  operation  is  performed.     The  same 
principle  applies  in  the  case  of  grafts  between  different  plants  of 
the  same  variety. 

In  the  case  of  grafts  between  plants  of  different  varieties,  species 
or  genera,  the  reciprocal  reactions  are  much  more  complicated  by 
the  imperfect  functional  adaptations.  In  herbaceous  grafts  the 
callus  has  the  same  effect  on  the  cion  as  would  placing  it  in  arid 
soil — it  is  dwarfed.  In  determining  what  species  of  the  same 
order  may  be  successfully  grafted,  similarity  of  habitat  is  of  more 
importance  than  relationship.  In  the  case  of  ligneous  plants,  geot- 
ropism  (219)  is  a  cause  of  variation,  although  this  has  generally 
been  denied  heretofore.  It  is  also  shown  that  a  branch  that  has 
lost  its  negative  geotropism  does  not  always  regain  it  if  grafted  on 
the  main  axis  of  the  stock,  at  least  in  the  case  of  the  pear. 

2.  The  flavor  of  the  edible  parts,  size,  chemical  composition  or 
season  of  development,  may  be  modified.     If  the  union  is  perfect, 
grafting  in  general  produces  a  change  of  flavor  in  the  edible  parts 
of  vegetative  organs,  either  in  the  nature  of  improvement  or  de- 
terioration in  quality.     There  is  almost  always  a  reduction  in  size 
of   the  part   which   sometimes    fails   entirely  to    develop   in   edible 
form.     For  the  operation  to  have  practical  interest,  the  diminution 
in   size  must  be   compensated  by   increase   in   quality.     When   the 
edible  parts  belong  to  the  reproductive  organs,  grafting  herbaceous 
plants  may  or  may  not  cause  the  enlargement  of  the  pericarp  of 
fleshy  fruits  or  of  the  seeds  in  dry  fruits.    There  is  no  known  prin- 
ciple .of    general    application.     The    flavor    of    the    fruit    depends 
mainly  on  the  completeness  of  the  union  and  the  quantity  of  sap 
the    cion    receives.     This    principle    applies    to    ligneous    and    her- 
baceous plants  alike. 

3.  The  development  of  the  reproductive  organs  of  the  cion  may 
be  accelerated  or  retarded.     The  flowering  season  of  the  cion  may 
be  affected  very  differently,  according  as  the  plant  is  annual,  bien- 
nial  or  perennial,   according  to  the   age   and   nature   of   the   cion, 
and  according  to  the  kind  of  graft  employed.    Grafting  may  induce 
variation  in  the  arrangement  of  flowers,  in  the  season 'of  opening 
or  falling  of  the  petals,  or  in  their  color. 

4.  The   relative   resistance   of    stock   and   cion   to   parasites    and 
other   injurious   organisms   or   substances    may  be   modified.     The 
principal    parasites    that    attack    grafts    before    the   union    is    com- 
plete   are    molluscs,    worms,    sowbugs,    insects    and   molds.     These 
parasites    may    affect    stock    and    cion     differently.     The    parasites 
that  attack  grafted  plants  after  the  union  is  complete,  are  in  the 
order  of  the  extent  of  their  ravages,  insects,  myriapods,  fungi,  and 
other  vegetative  parasites,  and  molluscs.    The  more  imperfect  the 
union   of   stock   and   cion,   the   more  serious   are  the   attacks;    so 
much  so  that  their  extent  and  severity  may  be  said  to  be  a  cri- 
terion of  the  degree  of  perfection  of  the  symbiosis. 


PLANT     PROPAGATION 


FIG.    145— TREE    DIGGER    AT   WORK    IN    PEAR   NURSERY    ROW 

The  digger  passes   under  the   nursery   row   and   the  trees   are  lifted   and   carried  to 

the    packing    or    storage    quarters 


DANIEL  S  EXPERIMENTS  AND  CONCLUSIONS  I/I 

218.  Reasons  for  the  above  effects. — The  theory  by  which  Daniel 
seeks  to  explain  these  facts  is  in  brief  as  follows :     The  nutrition 
of  stock  and  cion  is  modified  by  two  causes  which  may  act  in  the 
same  or  contrary  directions.     These  are    (1)  the  callus  consequent 
on  the  operation,  and  (2)  the  difference  between  the  peculiar  func- 
tional capacities  of  stock  and  cion,  such  as  differences  in  structure, 
special   diastases,   differences   in   composition   of   the   crude   or  the 
elaborated  saps,  etc.     The  phenomena  produced  are  dependent,  not 
only  on  the  nature  of  the  plant,  but  intimately  so  on  environment. 

From  this  theory  certain  conditions  of  success  in  grafting  may 
be  deduced.  The  protoplasm  of  stock .  and  cion  must  not,  as  a 
result  of  the  operation,  be  modified  beyond  that  definite  point  at 
which  poisoning  sets  in  or  at  which  the  essential  properties  of  the 
living  substance,  as  nutrition  and  motility,  are  destroyed.  De- 
struction of  the  protoplasm  may  result  from  either  of  two  causes : 
(l)  action  of  plastic  or  waste  products  brought  together  suddenly, 
causing  immediate  poisoning  or  gradually  causing  slow  poisoning. 
These  products  may  give  rise  through  mutual  reactions  to  other 
injurious  products.  (2)  Deficiency  or  excess  of  water  in  stock 
or  cion  consequent  upon  grafting. 

Daniel  demonstrates  the  insufficiency  of  the  hypothesis  of 
relationship  and  that  of  similarity  in  composition  of  elaborated  saps 
to  account  for  the  success  of  a  graft  or  to  explain  its  variations. 
He  reports  a  large  number  of  experiments,  each  illustrating  a  dif- 
ferent variation,  produced  directly  by  a  mutual  reaction  of  stock 
and  cion.  Specific  variations  differ  much  in  degrees  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  plant  and  even  according  to  the  part  of  the 
cion.  The  principle  applies  alike  to  herbaceous  and  woody  plants. 
Specific  variations  result  in  a  more  or  less  complete  blending  of 
the  characters  of  stock  and  cion ;  or  more  strictly,  these  char- 
acters appear  side  by  side  but  separate  and  distinct. 

219.  Geotropism,  the  tendency  of  plant  parts  to  grow 
downward  toward  the  center  of  the  earth,  as  in  ordinary 
roots.     Negative    geotropism     (apogeotropism)     is    the 
growing  away  from  the  earth,  as  in  ordinary  stems. 

220.  Transmission  of  grafted  characters  by  seed. — From  certain 
experiments  Daniel  concludes  that  variations  due  to  nutrition  are 
in   some  cases  transmitted  by  seed   collected   from  the  cion,   even 
when   no   morphological    changes    are   apparent   in   the   cion    itself. 
Such  cases  show  that  the  immediate  influence  of  stock  on  cion  may 
be   less  than  the   indirect  influence  of   the  offspring  of   the   cion. 
Seed  grafts  of  wild  carrot  on  the  cultivated  half-long  red  variety 
showed   clearly    such    a   mixture   of   the   characters   of    stock    and 
cion  that  the  resulting  plants  might  be  considered  true  crosses  or 
graft    hybrids    produced    by    the    influence    of    stock    on    embryo. 
These  and  similar  experiments  show  also  that  by  grafting  a  wild 
and  a  cultivated  plant  the  former  may  be  made  to  acquire  definite 
qualities  which  can  be  improved  by  selection.     Experiments  showed 


172 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


also    that    these    variations,    which    the    experimenter    classes    as 
specific,  are  at  least  in  certain  cases  transmitted  by  the  seed. 

Daniel  also  concludes  that  grafts  may  influence  the  somato- 
plasm (223),  though  not  always.  In  many  plants  the  effect  is  often 
very  slight,  especially  in  woody  plants  in  which  the  ligneous  frame- 
work gives  to  the  plant  a  much  more  fixed  form  than  herbaceous 
plants  possess.  When  this  influence  exists,  it  most  often  affects 
characters  of  little  taxonomic  importance,  as  height,  vigor,  etc., 
and  then  its  influence  is  similar  to  that  of  environment;  but  it  may 
sometimes  affect  the  essential  characters  of  varieties  or  species, 
such  as  external  form,  structure,  etc.,  which  become  more  or  less 
blended  into  graft  hybrids  (228)  or  may  disappear,  giving  place 
to  new  characters.  Not  only  may  the  influence  of  the  graft  on  the 
somatoplasm  show  itself  directly  in  the  grafted  plants  themselves, 
but  it  may  produce  an  indirect  reaction  either  parallel  or  not  par- 
allel to  the  direct  reaction,  and  new  characters  may  develop  in 
the  offspring,  proving  that,  contrary  to  Weismann's  theory,  acquired 
characters  can  be  transmitted  in  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

From  his  theoretical  considerations,  Daniel  deduces 
certain  practical  conclusions.  When  grafting  does  not 
modify  the  peculiar  characters  of  a  variety,  but  merely 
produces  certain  slight  variations  of  nutrition,  it  may  be 
employed  to  perpetuate  varieties,  races, 
or  accidental  forms  of  perennial  plants; 
but  if  the  influence  of  the  graft  on  the 
somatoplasm  is  very  marked  and  proves 
to  be  specific  (which  experiment  alone 
can  determine),  it  may  be  applied  to  the 
creation  of  new  varieties.  Here  a  new 
field  of  operation  is  opened  up  to  seeds- 
men. 

There  are  numerous  practical  appli- 
cations of  the  reciprocal  effect  of  stock 
and  cion,  such  as  increase  in  size  of 
fruits,  improvement  of  flavor  of  fruits 
and  certain  vegetables,  production  of 
new  varieties  in  which  color  of  flower, 
form  of  fruit,  or  vegetative  organs  are 
modified.  The  effects  of  grafting  are  more 
WIRE  PROTECTOR  marked  in  herbaceous  than  in  woody 
AGAINRABBIT|  AND  plants  and  also  more  marked  in  the  off- 


DANIEI/S  EXPERIMENTS  AND  CONCLUSIONS  1/3 

spring  of  the  grafted  plant  than  in  the  plant  itself.  Graft- 
ing, as  a  means  of  retaining  variations  acquired  under 
culture,  is  useful  only  in  the  case  of  trees,  and  difference 
between  seedling  fruit  trees  and  varieties  producing  them 
(199)  may  be  explained  in  part  by  the  effect  of  grafting 
on  the  progeny  of  the  grafted  plants. 

Grafting  which  produces  a  var- 
iation  in  the  seed  may  be  used 
to  produce  new  varieties.     Since 
this   variation   can   frequently  be 
directed  in  a  given  way,  it  is  pos- 
sible  almost  to  a  certainty  by  re-      FIG"  '"-BUNDLES  OF 
peated  grafting  to  impart  definite       CIONS    FOR    SH1PMENT 
characteristics  of  flavor,  form,  color,  etc.,  to  plants  which 
vary  readily  under  culture.     In  other  cases  grafting  may 
produce  variations  which,  though  hard  to  obtain,  after 
once  appearing,  may  be  directed  definitely. 

221.  Asexual  hybridization — Formerly  it  was  believed  that 
grafted  cions  lost  none  of  their  own  characteristics  and  acquired 
no  new  ones  from  the  stocks  on  which  they  were  grafted,  but  the 
experiments  of  Daniel  and  other  investigators  indicate  that  these 
views  must  be  modified.  For  Daniel  has  proved  that  hybrids  pro- 
duced by  grafting  can  be  fixed  and  propagated  true  to  kind,  but  he 
draws  the  conclusion  that  asexual  hybridization  is  neither  con- 
stant, regular  nor  very  frequent.  In  its  results  it  is  somewhat 
similar  to  cross  pollination,  but  has  a  wider  application,  and  the 
resulting  forms  are  less  constant  in  character. 

Grafting  is  not  always  a  certain  means  of  perpetuating  variations, 
although  it  generally  is.  In  itself  it  may  occasion  variation,  which 
in  turn  may  be  fixed  by  grafting.  In  order  to  produce  a  given 
variation  by  grafting  or  to  add  to  a  plant  a  character  it  lacks, 
it  is  necessary  to  graft  it  on  another  plant  which  is  superior  to  it 
in  the  quality  sought.  In  grafting  hybrid  vines  to  secure  a  desired 
character,  it  is  necessary  to  graft  together  two  vines  having- 
common  blood  in  such  proportions  that  the  sum  of  the  blood  of 
the  characters  desired  shall  be  greater  than  the  blood  of  any  other 
strain  in  the  graft.  Modification  in  vines  as  regards  eradication 
of  the  foxy  flavor,  increase  in  size  of  berry,  resistance  to  exterior 
agents,  etc.,  can  thus  be  obtained. 

The  problem  of  the  French  grape  industry,  Daniel  declares,  is 
to  unite  American  root  resistance  (to  phylloxera)  to  the  French 
quality  fruit.  He  says  this  will  probably  be  done,  not  by  sexual 
hybridization  alone,  but  by  rational  combination  with  asexual  hy- 


PLANT     PROPAGATION 


DANIEL'S  EXPERIMENTS  AND  CONCLUSIONS  175 

bridization  by  grafting,  and  then  the  preservation  of  the  variation 
thus  secured  by  budding. 

Asexual  hybridization,  according  to  him,  sometimes  operates 
directly  upon  the  grafted  plants,  sometimes  indirectly  upon  the 
descendants ;  sometimes  it  affects  external  characters ;  sometimes 
it  causes  a  disjunction  of  previously  blended  characters;  sometimes 
heredity  and  persistence  are  complete;  sometimes  partial  or  lack- 
ing; often  expected  results  can  be  secured.  But  the  most  impor- 
tant practical  point  is  that  in  many  cases  grafting  has  served  to 
insure  systematic  improvements  of  plants.  Emphasis  must  be  laid 
on  his  remark  that  when  a  plant  is  to  be  improved  in  a  certain  re- 
spect, it  must  be  grafted  on  a  stock  superior  in  this  respect. 

222.  Germplasm,  the  continuously  living  substance  of 
an  organism.     It  is  capable  of  reproducing  both   itself 
and  the  somatoplasm,  or  body  tissue,  in  giving  rise  to 
new  individuals.     It   is   the   Substance,   or   Essence,   or 
Life  which   is   neither  formed  afresh,  generation   after 
generation,  nor  created  or  developed  when  sexual  ma- 
turity  is   reached,   but   is   present   all   the   time   as   the 
potentiality  of  the  individual,  before  birth  and  after  death, 
as  well  as  during  that  period  we  term  "life"  between 
these  two  events.    The  somatoplasm,  on  the  other  hand, 
has  no  such  power.     It  can  produce  only  its  kind — the 
ephemeral,  the  perishable  body  or  husk,  which  sooner  or 
later  completes  its  life  cycle,  dies  and  disintegrates.     The 
germplasm,  barring  accident,  is  in  a  sense  immortal. 

223.  Somatoplasm,  the  body  tissues  as  a  whole.     See 
Germplasm  (222). 


CHAPTER  XIII 

GENERAL  POINTS  CONCERNING  FRUIT  TREE 
STOCKS* 

224.  Effects  of  stock  on  cion. — [With  few  exceptions]   all  fruit 
trees   are    consorts   of    two   individuals,    stock    and    cion.     So    far 
fruit  growing  has  been  carried  on  with  little  or  no  regard  to  their 
interactions.     Yet  there  is  no  doubt  that  each  reacts  upon  the  other 
and  that  all  grafted  fruits  are  influenced  for  better  or  worse  by  the 
stocks  upon  which  they  are  worked.     To  this  fact  those  who  have 
given  the  matter  study  now  agree,  though  there  is  little  accord  in 
the   explanations   offered   to    account    for    the   various    effects.     In 
short,   about   all   we   really  know  is   that  plants  often   get  out   of 
gear  in  the  adjustment  of  cion   to  stock.    Why  and  how,  remain 
for  the  most  part  to  be  determined. 

Since  we  cannot  find  clear-cut  analyses  of  the  effects  of  stock 
on  cion,  it  is  small  wonder  that  fruit  growers  give  little  attention 
to  stocks.  After  centuries  of  fruit  culture,  we  actually  do  not 
know  what  the  best  stocks  are  for  many  fruits.  Further  to  com- 
plicate the  situation,  trees  are  profoundly  modified  by  soil  and 
climate,  the  modifications  not  infrequently  being  confused  with 
those  caused  by  the  stock.  Our  fragmentary  knowledge  of  stocks 
being  thus  a  thing  of  shreds  and  patches,  few  are  willing  to  break 
away  from  time-worn  dictums,  so  continue  to  plant  trees  without 
attention  to  the  reciprocal  influences  of  stock  and  cion.  Briefly, 
influences  are  as  follows : 

225.  Influences  of  tree  fruit  stock  on  cion. — i.  Stock  modifies 
form    and    size.     Altered    size    and    form    of    tree    resulting    from 
grafting  cannot  be  said  to  be  due  wholly  to  diminished  vigor  and 
not  at  all  to  debility.     Rather,  the   cion  takes  the  size,  form   and 
somewhat  the  peculiarities  in  habit  of  growth  of  the  stock.     Thus, 
the  scraggly  Red  Canada  apple  worked  on  Northern  Spy  assumes, 
somewhat,    not    wholly,    Spy    characteristics    of    growth ;    pear    on 
quince   takes   quince   size ;   apple   on    Paradise   or   Doucin,   the   size 
and  form  of  these  stocks.     Increased  size  rarely,  if  ever,  occurs. 

2.  Adaptability  of  species  or  variety  to  soil  may  be  changed  by 
stock.  Peach  when  worked  on  plum  may  do  well  on  heavy  soils 
where  on  their  own  roots  they  would  be  worthless.  Conversely, 
plum  can  be  adapted  to  light  soils  by  working  on  peach,  thriving 
still  better  on  Myrobalan  in  most  soils.  Everything  points  to  maz- 
zard  rather  than  mahaleb  for  both  sweet  and  sour  cherries.  Ninety- 

*  Paragraphs  224  to  233  are  condensed  from  an  address  by  Prof.  U.  P. 
Hedrick  of  New  York,  before  the  New  York  State  Fruit  Growers'  Association. 


GENERAL  POINTS  CONCERNING  FRUIT  TREE  STOCKS    177 


nine  trees  out  of  a  hundred  are  on  mahaleb  stock  as  there  is  less 
loss.  Cherry  on  mazzard  should  cost  twice  as  much,  but  is  worth 
the  price.  Mahaleb  is  sometimes  better  than  mazzard  in  shallow 
or  wet  soil.  Possibly  this  is  the  most  inportant  influence  of  stock 
on  cion,  for  through  it  many  fruits,  which  would  not  thrive,  in 
some  cases  would  not  live,  on  their  own  roots,  can  be  grown  in 
unfavorable  soils.  The  use  of  stocks  to  overcome  soil  adversities 
demands  much  more  attention  than  has  been  given. 

3.  Through  the  stock,  plants  may  be  made  to  endure  incompatible 
climates.  It  would  be  too  much  to  say  that  hardiness  as  an  in- 
herent quality  is  transmitted  from  stock  to  cion,  but  it  is  very  cer- 
tain that  increase  in  vigor  imparted  by  some  stocks  gives  greater 
hardiness  to  grafted  plants.  In  the  case  of  late-growing  apples 
worked  on  Hibernal  or  Oldenberg  stocks  greater  hardiness  results, 
because  the  cion  matures  earlier  than  it  would  upon  its  own  roots 


FIG.    149— HEELING- IN    TREES    FOR   WINTER    STORAGE 


and  is  therefore  better  able  to  withstand  the  winter.  Again,  slight 
obstructions  to  the  sap  flow  imposed  more  or  less  by  union  of  dif- 
ferent tissues  of  stock  and  cion  may  cause  the  cion  to  ripen 
earlier  and  thus  bring  about  greater  hardiness.  Some  V'ants,  as 
peach,  must  have  a  warm  soil ;  therefore,  peach  does  better  on  plum 
in  cold  soils  than  on  its  own  roots. 

4.  Stocks,  if  diseased,  may  impart  the  disease  to  cions,  as  when 
peach  stocks  infested  with  peach  yellows  or  "little  peach"  are  budded 
with  healthy  buds. 

5.  Productiveness  of  tree  is  often  increased  by  stock,  paradoxically 
enough,  either  by  increasing  or  by  decreasing  plant  vigor.  Trees 
sometimes  fail  to  fruit  well  because  of  too  much  wood  growth,  in 
which  case  grafting  on  less-  vigorous  stocks  checks  growth  and 
makes  for  productivity ;  thus  we  may  explain  the  greater  fruit- 
fulness  of  some  dwarf  apples  and  pears.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
fruit  may  be  too  weak  in  growth  to  be  fruitful,  hence 
grafting  on  a  stock  which  imparts  vigor  may  make  it  more  pro- 
ductive. 

6.  Time  of  maturity  of  both  wood  and  crop  may  be  changed 
somewhat  by  stock — hastened  on  the  one  hand  or  retarded  on  the 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


other,  according  to  whether  stock  ripens  earlier  or  later  than 
cion.  It  follows,  of  course,  that  keeping  quality  is  affected  in  the 
same  degree  as  maturity.  From  what  is  known  on  this  subject  we 
are  warranted  in  saying  that  earliness  is  promoted  only  when  the 
stock  ripens  its  wood  earlier  than  the  cion ;  lateness,  when  the  stock 
wood  ripens  later. 

7.  Color  of  fruit  may  be  changed  by  stock.    There  is  little  evi- 
dence to  substantiate  the  claim  that  the   characteristic  color  of  a 
fruit  is  changed  by  the  stock,  but,  as  all  know,  color  is  heightened 
by  earliness  and  lessened  by  lateness  in  the  maturity  of  a  variety. 
In   cases,  then,  in  which   stock  influences  time  of  maturity,   color 
may  be  more  or  less  changed.     I  know  of  a  Mclntosh  orchard  the 
fruit  of  which  is  much  brighter  in  color  and  matures  nearly  two 
weeks  earlier  than  Mclntosh  on  standard  stocks,  apparently  because 
grafted  upon  Oldenburg  stocks. 

8.  Size  of  fruit  is  often  increased  by  stock.     I  cite  only  pear  on 
quince  as  an  example.     Many  others  might  be  adduced. 

9.  Stock  affects  eating  qualities  of  fruit  on  cion.     Larger,  crisper, 


FIG.    150 — PEACH    PIT    PLANTER 

1.  Natural  wild  peach  pit;  2,  Canning  factory  pit,  not  good  for  planting;  3, 
-loooer  of  machine.  Most  nurserymen  contend  for  the  "natural"  pit  as  against 
pits  of  cultivated  varieties  secured  from  canneries. 


GENERAL  POINTS   CONCERNING  FRUIT  TREE  STOCKS         179 


juicier  fruits  of  a  variety  can  be  grown  on  some  stocks  than  on 
others,  making  them  more  palatable.     Sweetness  and  sourness  de- 
pend on  amount  of  sugar  and  acid;  these,  in  turn,  are  influenced 
by  health,  vigor,  time  of  maturity  and  nutrition,  all  of  which  are 
influenced    by    stock.      A    variety    may, 
therefore,  be  sweeter  or  sourer  on  one 
stock  than  on  another.     There  is  noth- 
ing to  show  that  flavor  is  changed. 

10.  Some  stocks  shorten  the  life  of 
the  trees  of  which  they  are  a  part. 
Apples  on  pears  and  pears  on  apples 
are  short-lived  trees.  Bartlett  is  short- 
lived when  top-worked  on  Kieffer.  As 

FIG.  151-GRAFT  PLANTING  a  rule'.  grafting  weak-growing  species 
on  vigorous  stock  shortens  the  tree 
life. 

226.  Influence  of  grape  stocks  on  cions. — Much  more  is  known 
about  influence  of  stock   on   cion  in  grape-growing  than  on  tree 
fruits.     To    epitomize :     Experimenters    of    established    reputation 
hold  that  very  appreciable   differences  may  be  noted  between  the 
chemical  and  the  physical  composition  of  grapes,  grafted  on  various 
stocks  and  fruit  of  the  same  variety  on  its  own  roots.    Among  the 
effects  claimed  the  following  are  quoted:     Fruit  of  grafted  vines 
is  larger,  has  bigger  seeds,  thinner  skin,  berries  are  less  numerous, 
juice  is  more   copious,  is   usually  both   more   acid   and   sugary,   is 
less  rich  in  phosphate,  more  highly  charged  with  nitrogenous  mat- 
ters, has  little  tannin,  less  color  and  the  color  is  less  stable;  vines 
are  more  fruitful ;  fruit  ma- 
tures   earlier.    These    differ- 
ences vary  in  different  cases. 

In  an  experiment  with  grape 
stock  for  American  grapes 
carried  on  for  eleven  years 
at  the  New  York  station  ma- 
terial differences  were  found 
between  grafted  and  un- 
grafted  vines,  all  included  in 
the  above  summary. 

227.  Influence  of   cion  on 
stock — Cion    in    its    turn  has 
a  decided  influence  on  stock. 
For  example,  the     form     of 
roots  is  much  changed  by  the 
cion.     Thus,    in   starting   ap- 
ples   in    a    nursery    we    bud 
on  seedlings  which  unbudded 
would    ha\e      root      systems 
much   the   same,  but  at  dig- 
ging  time   the   roots   of    the   The  knife  cuts  the  roots  at  12  to 
various      varieties      are      as  below    the    surface. 


FIG.    152— NURSERY    TREE    DIGGER 

nches 


iSo 


PLAXT     PROPAGATION 


FIG.   153— MOVING  LARGE  TREES 

1.  Estimate  size  of  tree  by  that  of  man  above  center  of  picture.  2.  Notice 
the  tackle  and  the  size  of  the  man.  3.  Sixteen  horses  were  needed  to  haul  this 
tree. 


GENERAL  POINTS    CO.XC  EKNIXG  FRUIT  TREE  STOCKS          iSl 

diverse  as  the  varieties  themselves;  Red  Astrachan,  for  instance, 
has  an  exceedingly  fibrous  root  system  with  few  tap  roots,  while 
Oldenburg  and  Fameuse  grown  on  either  side  of  the  Red  Astrachan 
row,  are  almost  destitute  of  root  fibers,  having  instead  deep  tap  roots 
\vith  two  or  three  prongs.  Nurserymen  declare  the  weaker  the 
top  growth  and  the  sparser  the  foliage  of  a  variety,  the  more 
deficient  is  the  root  growth. 

228.  Plant  chimeras  or  "graft-hybrids." — To  the  general  rule  that 
stock  and  cion  retain  their  identity  there  is  a  seeming  exception  in 
the  pseudo-hybrids  or  plant  chimeras  of  experimenters.  When,  after 
grafting,  cion  buds  fail  to  grow  and  an  adventitious  bud  arises  at 
the  junction  of  stock  and  cion,  including  cells  from  both  parts,  we 
have  what  for  many  years  was  known  as  a  graft-hybrid,  but  is 
now  more  accurately  called  a  plant 
chimera.  In  a  case  of  this  kind  the 
cells  from  stock  and  cion  reproduce 
themselves,  sometimes  the  wood  of  one 
covering  the  other  like  a  glove,  or  it 
may  be  the  wood  of  the  consorting 
pair  grows  side  by  side  in  parallel  parts 
throughout  the  plant.  These  plant 
chimeras  are  more  or  less  familiar  in 
apples  half  sweet,  the  other  half  sour; 
or  in  which  a  portion  of  the  apple  is 
red  or  yellow  and  another  russet.  They 
are  probably  more  often  found  in  citrus 
fruits  than  in  any  others.  It  is  pos- 
sible  that  the  cells  of  two  consorting 
parts  do  actually  blend  in  some  cases, 
forming  a  true  hybrid.  Not  improbably 
some  of  the  many  so-called  strains  of  fruit  described  by  those 
seeking  to  improve  plants  by  bud  selection  are  plant  chimeras. 

229.  Explanations  for  reciprocal  effects. — Plant  physiology  does 
not  help  us  much  in  elucidating  the  influence  of  grafting.  The- 
oretically, from  the  anatomy  of  plants,  we  can  expect  nothing  more 
in  grafting  than  the  adhesion  of  graft  to  stock.  The  tissues  below 
the  union  are  those  of  the  stock;  above  it,  those  of  the  cion.  Yet 
there  is  some  reason  to  suspect  that  definite  substances  pass  from 
one  to  the  other  in  the  consorting  parts  of  a  grafted  plant  and 
produce  specific  effects.  Thus,  when  a  cion  with  variegated 
foliage  is  grafted  on  a  normal  stock,  shoots  which  spring  from  the 
stock  below  the  graft  are  variegated.  Or,  if  deadly  nightshade  be 
grafted  on  tomato,  the  poison,  atropine,  passes  down  into  tomato 
root  and  stem.  But  curiously  enough,  if  the  variegated  plant  or 
the  nightshade  be  used  as  a  stock,  variegation  in  one  case  and 
atropine  in  the  other  do  not  pass  upward  into  the  cions. 

An  ingenious  and  not  at  all  improbable  reason  for  some  of  the 
influence  of  the  stock  upon  the  cion  was  offered  in  the  French 
Academy  of  Science  [by  Le  Clerc  du  Sablon].  The  speaker  had 


182 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


made  analyses  of  pear  trees  two  years  old  from  the  graft  on 
quince  and  pear  stocks  to  determine  the  relative  quantities  of 
plant  foods  stored  in  the  stems  of  the  two  sets  of  plants.  It  was 
found  that  during  autumn  and  winter  reserve  matter  was  markedly 
more  abundant  in  the  stem  on  quince  stock.  In  spring,  therefore, 
the  pear  on  quince  was  enabled  to  furnish  more  food  matter  for 
fruit  formation  and  crop  production  was  greatly  increased.  Again, 
reserve  food  in  stems  is  nearer  the  fruit  than  in  roots  and  is  thus 
possibly  more  readily  utilized.  If  these  experiments  are  accurate 
•we  may  find  the  best  stocks  are  those  whose  roots  store  the  least 
quantity  of  reserve-foods  and  so  force  the  accumulation  of  re- 
serve matter  in  stems. 

Unquestionably,  some  effects  of  stock  are  due  to  altered  nutri- 
tion— possibly  to  insufficient  nutrition  of  stock  or  cion.  Much  evi- 
dence points  to  disturbance  of  nutrition  as  the  chief  cause  of  the 


FIG.  155— HERBACEOUS  GRAFTING  AND  BUDDING 

1,  herbaceous  buds;  2,  herbaceous  grafts.  Summer  methods  of  propagating 
grapes  on  green  canes.  None  of  the  herbaceous  methods  so  far  tested  in  California 
have  been  very  successful. 

effects  of  grafting.  It  may  be  that  food  elaborated  by  the  foliage 
of  the  cion  is  different  from  that  the  stock  would  have  had  with 
its  own  foliage.  It  has  been  suggested  that  difference  in  specific 
gravity  of  stock  and  cion  sap  may  be  a  disturbing  factor.  But 
these  explanations  are  not  sufficient  to  cover  all  phenomena  arising 
from  grafting.  Truth  is  we  have  for  the  most  part  only  certain 
isolated  facts  to  explain  which  we  must  rely  upon  inferences 
which  have  the  greatest  amount  of  probability  in  their  favor  from 
the  knowledge  of  the  case.  It  remains  for  someone  to  tell  why. 
230.  Why  nurserymen  bud  or  graft  trees. — Important  though  the 
effects  of  stock  are  on  cions,  any  and  all  are  but  incidental  to  the 
true  explanation  for  a  two-part  tree  for  practically  all  orchard 
plants.  At  the  proper  season  in  every  nursery  an  army  of  expert 
workmen  graft  or  bud  so  dexterously,  precisely  and  rapidly  that 
their  work  is  little  short  of  marvelous.  What  are  the  reasons  for 


GENERAL  POINTS  CONCERNING  FRUIT  TREE  STOCKS    183 

all  this  seemingly  extra  work  of  grafting?  Why  do  not  nursery- 
men sell  us  plants  on  their  own  roots?  In  no  other  way  can  fruit 
trees  true  to  name  be  propagated  so  rapidly.  In  some  cases  there 
is  no  other  possible  method  of  multiplying  a  variety.  Unfortunately, 
the  stocks  chiefly  chosen  by  nurserymen  are  those  which  can  be 
worked  most  easily  and  soonest  give  a  presentable  nursery  tree. 
[As  a  rule  the  seedlings  of  a  species  make  the  best  stocks  for  that 
species.]  Fruit  growers,  if  they  give  the  matter  thought,  choose 
stocks  that  do  not  sucker,  or  that  best  suit  their  soil  and  in  a  few 
cases  one  that  will  give  a  dwarf  tree.  All  other  effects  of  stock 
on  cion  are  ignored  by  both  nurseryman  and  fruit  grower. 

It  does  not  follow,  however,  that  whatsoever  stock  one  wants 
can  be  used.  Even  when  kinship  is  close  some  plants  resist  all 
appliances  of  art  to  make  a  successful  union,  while  some  distinct 
species  of  fruits  seem  foreordained  to  be  joined.  Thus,  a 
pear  will  not  grow  well  on  an  apple  nor  an  apple  on  a  pear, 
closely  related  though  they  are;  but  the  pear  readily  unites  with 
quince  and  hawthorn.  So,  too,  peach  and  apricot  are  grafted  on 
each  other  only  with  difficulty,  but  both  readily  unite  with  almond 
and  plum.  Sweet  and  sour  cherries  grow  well  on  mahaleb  cherry, 
but  mahaleb  will  not  grow  on  any  of  the  cultivated  cherries- 
Sour  cherries  upon  sweet  ones  succeed  less  well  than  the  latter  on 
the  former.  The  gooseberry  will  not  grow  on  red  currant,  but 
thrives  on  black  currant. 

Something  more  is  necessary,  then,  than  botanical  kinship,  but 
just  what  no  one  knows  beyond,  of  course,  the  knowledge  that 
there  must  be  some  conformity  in  habit  between  stock  and  cion ; 
that  the  two  must  start  in  growth  at  approximately  the  same  time ; 
and  that  the  tissues  must  be  sufficiently  alfke  that  there  be  proper 
contact  in  the  union.  Yet  these  facts  do  not  sufficiently  explain  the 
affinities  and  antipathies  which  plants  show.  Thus,  the  propagator 
has  little  to  guide  him  in  selecting  stocks  and  can  choose  only 
after  making  repeated  trials,  near  relationship  being  the  only 
guide,  even  though  often  an  untrustworthy  one. 

231.  Influence   of   stock   propagation    method. — Not    only    are 
grafted  plants  affected  by  kind  of  stock  used,  but  also  by  manner  of 
propagating  stocks,   whether   from   seed  or   from  cuttings.     There 
is  no  question,  for  example,  that  stocks  propagated  by  cuttings  do 
not  produce  the  deep  tap  and  prong  roots  that  seedlings  do.     Again, 
seedlings    lifted    and    root-pruned    the    season    before    budded    or 
grafted  have  thicker  root  systems  than  if  not  so  transplanted. 

It  seems  necessary,  therefore,  to  say  that  for  the  best  interests 
of  fruit-growing  we  cannot  neglect  the  way  in  which  stocks  are 
grown.  Undoubtedly  for  some  conditions  we  shall  find  stocks  from 
cuttings  preferable ;  under  others,  and  generally,  seedlings  will  be 
better  when  we  have  a  choice.  So  too,  usually,  when  nursery  prac- 
tice permits,  a  stock  is  better  for  having  been  transplanted  before 
budding  or  grafting. 

232.  Pedigreed  trees. — The  selection  of  stocks  leads  straight  to 
the    center    of    another    problem.     We   hear    much    about    the    in- 


184  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

dividuality  of  orchard  trees  and  the  necessity  of  propagating  from 
individuals  having  the  best  characters.  The  speaker  does  not  be- 
lieve in  "pedigreed  trees",  finding  but  little  in  either  theory  or  fact 
to  substantiate  the  claim  of  those  who  believe  they  can  improve 
varieties  by  bud  selection.  The  multitude  of  trees  in  any  variety, 
all  from  one  seed,  it  seems  paradoxical  to  say,  are  morphologically 
one  individual.  A  plant  variety  propagated  by  buds  is  essentially 
complete  in  its  heredity.  How,  then,  can  the  difference  between 
individual  plants  in  every  orchard  be  explained? 

Ample  explanation  is  found  in  "nurture"  without  invoking  a 
change  in  "nature."  Soil,  sunlight,  moisture,  insects,  disease — and, 
more  than  any  of  these,  the  stock — give  every  individual  plant  an 


FIG.  156— HAND  METHOD  OF  PLANTING  NURSERY  STOCK 
Two   men    work   to   better   advantage    than    one    alone. 

environment  of  its  own  from  which  come  characters  which  appear 
and  disappear  with  the  individual.  Thus,  it  is  believed,  we  can 
bend  a  variety  by  means  of  a  stock,  but  not  that  we  can  permanently 
mold  it  into  any  new  form  given  it  by  a  stock.  Let  go  the  force, 
whatever  it  may  be,  which  bends  the  variety  and  it  snaps  back  into 
its  same  old  self. 

233.  Necessity  for  stock  breeding.— In  the  coming  refinement  of 
fruit  growing  we  must  breed  stocks  as  we  now  do  varieties  they 
support.  The  stocks  of  all  tree  fruits  are  supposed  to  be  seedlings 
of  cultivated  varieties.  Yet  only  a  cursory  investigation  at  home 
or  abroad  shows  that  seed  from  cider  presses  and  stone  fruit  pits 
from  canneries  are  commonly  used  in  growing  nursery  stocks. 
Under  present  methods  it  is  mere  chance  as  to  whether  one  gets 
a  tree  on  a  good,  or  a  bad  plant  on  any  stock.  Would  it  not  be 
a  safe  stroke  of  business  for  a  nurseryman  to  select  his  stocks  and 
through  his  catalogue  educate  fruit  growers  as  to  the  greater 
value  of  trees  on  good  stocks? 


FIG.    157— GRAPE    GRAFTING 

I,  rooted  stock  vines;  2,  grafts  in  inverted  order,  r< 
stock  (two  specimens  of  each)  parts  fitted,  completed 
The  roots  produced  above  the  labels  are  from  the  cions.  They  should  be  destroyed. 


eading  right  to  left:   cion, 
graft.      3,    rooted    cifl 


1 86  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

234.  Pedigreed  trees  again   (see  232).     J.  P.  Stewart  discusses 
this  question  in  a  recent  bulletin,  condensed  as  follows : 

Various  theories  of  observation  have  been  advanced,  but  only  a 
few  experiments  conducted.  The  net  results  of  observation  and 
discussion,  however,  have  shown  merely  that  important  variations 
do  exist  among  mature  apple  trees,  in  almost  any  direction  desired, 
but  thus  far  none  of  the  variations  within  a  variety,  with  the 
apparent  exception  of  color,  have  been  actually  proved  to  be  herit- 
able. In  addition  the  most  fundamental  and  generally  accepted 
theories  are  all  against  such  inheritance,  without  excepting  color. 

With  this  situation  in  view,  a  preliminary  test  was  started  at  the 
Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station  on  the  influence  of  cion  selection 
in  improving  yields.  The  individual  trees  were  chosen  merely  on 
the  recommendation  of  commercial  growers,  for  the  most  part, 
and  without  any  definite  and  comparative  records  covering  several 
years — the  only  satisfactory  basis  for  making  the  primary  de- 
termination of  what  are  really  superior  individuals.  This  defect  is 
being  remedied  in  another  more  comprehensive  test  recently  started. 
In  the  present  test  cions  from  supposedly  superior  individuals  were 
top  grafted  chiefly  on  Northern  Spy  stock.  Ordinary  nursery  trees 
of  the  same  variety  were  planted  alongside  for  comparison. 

It  is  much  too  early  to  draw  conclusions  from  this  work,  but 
the  results  to  the  close  of  the  seventh  year  indicate  that  in  four 
of  eight  varieties,  a  slight  superiority  is  shown  by  the  trees  pro- 
duced from  the  selected  cions.  In  three  varieties  no  advantage  is 
shown  in  either  group,  although  the  cions  for  these  trees  were 
secured  from  one  of  the  most  prominent  advocates  of  the  practice; 
in  the  eighth  a  slight  difference  favors  the  nursery  trees. 

The  results  are  evidently  insufficient  either  to  approve  or  con- 
demn the  practice  of  cion  selection.  Such  trees  may  have  more 
certainty  of  trueness  to  name  where  the  cions  have  some  recently 
from  the  pure  trees  of  known  bearing  habits,  and  one  is  naturally 
on  the  safe  side  of  the  question  in  using  them,  when  they  can  be 
obtained  without  material  difference  in  price.  This,  however,  is  all 
that  can  be  said  at  present  in  favor  of  the  practice  so  far  as  apples 
are  concerned.  Much  more  data  are  needed. 

235.  Stocks    in    top-grafting. — In     case     experiments 
should  definitely  prove  cion  selection  to  be  advisable,  it 
may  be  well  to  know  something  of  the  relative  values  of 
various  stocks  available  for  top-grafting.     It  seems  also 
that  some  desirable  varieties  should  regularly  be  top- 
grafted  to  secure  better  and  healthier  trunks.     To  secure 
data  on  the  relative  merits  of  certain  well-known  varieties 
for  stock  purposes,  a  test  has  been  started  at  the  Pennsyl- 
vania station,  using  four  trees  each  of  three  varieties  top- 
grafted  on  five  different  stocks.     Stewart's  progress  re- 


GENERAL  POINTS  CONCERNING  FRUIT  TREE  STOCKS    187 

port  is  somewhat  condensed  from  a  recent  bulletin  as 
follows : 

One  rather  unexpected  result  so  far  is  that  in  all  cases  except 
one  (Wolf  River)  the  trees  top-grafted  on  known  stocks  have 
made  a  better  average  growth  than  those  grafted  on  seedling  roots 
in  the  nursery.  All  top-grafted  Grimes  trees  are  also  in  the  lead. 
Among  the  various  stocks,  trees  developed  on  Paragon  are  distinctly 
in  the  lead,  with  those  on  Tolman  second.  With  Grimes  and 
Tompkins  King,  the  only  varieties  of  these  three  that  really  need 
top-grafting,  the  superiority  of  these  two  stocks  is  very  marked  so 
far  as  growth  is  concerned.  In  smoothness  of  unions,  Tolman 
and  Champion  are  probably  best,  with  Paragon  next,  if  the  top- 
grafts  with  Jonathan  be  excepted,  as  with  that  variety  the  Paragon 
stock  has  tended  to  outgrow  the  cions.  Incidentally,  the  reverse  is 
the  case  with  Grimes  on  Wolf  River. 


FIG.    158— NEGRO    WOMEN    ARE    LARGELY    EMPLOYED    IN    SOUTHERN 
NURSERIES 

Northern  Spy  stock  has  averaged  third  in  growth  and  is  now 
running  about  equal  to  Paragon  in  unions.  It  also  usually  makes 
an  excellent  trunk  and  root  system,  but  in  at  least  one  respect  it  is 
considerably  less  desirable  than  either  Tolman,  or  Paragon  for 
stock  purposes ;  namely,  in  its  unusual  tardiness  in  starting  growth 
in  spring.  This  tends  to  make  the  cions  more  active  than  the 
stocks  of  most  varieties,  naturally  the  reverse  of  the  condition 
desired  when  grafts  are  being  started.  From  present  results, 
therefore,  either  Paragon  or  Tolman  appears  to  be  distinctly  pref- 
erable to  any  of  the  others,  for  Grimes  at  least — Champion  third, 
if  Jonathan  grafts  are  omitted. 

Samuel  Fraser  of  Geneseo,  N.  Y.,  finds  that  Twenty-Ounce  top- 
grafted  on  Baldwin  makes  50  to  100  per  cent  better  trees  in  five  to 
eight  years  than  when  worked  on  Northern  Spy.  Similarly,  Wealthy 
does  poorly  on  Rhode  Island  Greening,  while  the  latter  does  well 
on  Wealthy.  Hubbardston  cions  grafted  on  Ben  Davis,  Northern 


i88 


PLANT     PROPAGATION 


Spy  and  Tolman  resulted  in  such  peculiar  changes  in  twig  color — 
some  becoming  red,  some  purple,-  etc. — that  they  could  not  be  used 
with  safety  for  further  cion  wood  until  they  had  proved  their 
identity  by  coming  into  bearing. 

These  and  similar  facts  indicate  that  many  common  variations 
in  size  and  vigor  so  frequently  shown  by  the  same  variety  of  tree, 


WHOLE  ROOT 
GRAFTS 


FIG.    159— STAGES    IN    GRAFTED    APPLE    TREE    PRODUCTION 

Notice  that  the  finished  trees  are  "whips."  These  are  what  commercial 
planters  are  largely  preferring  to  two  year  trees  because  they  allow  the  head  to 
be  formed  at  any  height  and  they  grow  better  than  the  older  trees. 


GENERAL  POINTS   CONCERNING  FRUIT  TREE  STOCKS         189 

both  in  nursery  and  later  growth,  are  due  to  differences  in  con- 
geniality between  the  cions  and  the  variable  seedling  stocks. 

236.  Hardy  stocks  for  tender  varieties. — At  the   Canadian   ex- 
periment farms  90  varieties  of  apples  were  top-grafted  on  hardy 
stocks  to  see  if  they  could  thus  be  made  hardy,  but  practically  all 
were   killed   back   to   the   stocks.     One   Wealthy    stock   grafted   to 
Milwaukee  and  Martha  carried  the  former  through  a  very  severe 
winter  and  matured  a  crop  of  fruit,  while  the  latter  was  killed. 
Hence  the  conclusion :  Trees  tender  on  their  own  roots  are  also 
tender  on  hardy  stocks. 

237.  Slow-maturing  stocks  (Northern  Spy),  according  to  Gulley 
of    Connecticut,    do    not    delay    the    fruiting    of     quick-maturing 
varieties   (Jonathan  and  Canada  Red). 

238.  Quince     effect    on    pear.— Two    French    investigators,    G. 
Reviere   and  G.   Bailhacke,   tested   the  effects  of   stock  upon   cion 
of   two   pear   trees   of   one   variety  upon    quince    and   pear   stocks 
respectively.     The  trees  were  15  years  old  and  had  grown  under 
apparently   identical   conditions.     For   three   successive   seasons  the 
fruits  were  collected ;  samples  were  analyzed,  etc.     Each  bore  about 
300  fruits  annually.     Those  on  the  pear  stock  were  green,  those  on 
quince  yellow  with  a  rose  blush  on  the  sunny  side.    The  average 
weight,   density,   acidity   and  sugar   content  were   in    favor  of  the 
quince  stock.     Observations  on  another  variety  tallied  with   these 
findings.     The  differences  are  attributed  to  greater  activity  of  the 
chlorophyll  in  the  quince  case. 

239.  Hardness    and    softness   of    wood   in    apple    grafting. — E. 
Leroux,  a  French  investigator,  has  concluded  from  experiments  with 
200  varieties  of  cider  apples  that  (1)  varieties  with  tender  wood  can 
be  most  successfully  grafted  on  tender-wooded  varieties  and  hard- 
wooded  on  hard-wooded;    (2)   success  follows  only  rarely  when  a 
tender-wooded  one  is  grafted  on  a  hard-wooded  one;   (3)  success 
seldom  or  never  follows  when  a  variety  with  hard  wood  is  grafted 
on  a  soft-wooded  stock.     These  principles  are  believed  to  apply  to 
other  orchard  fruits. 

240.  Effect  of  small  growing  stock  on  cion. — Booth  re- 
ports an  instance  in  which  peaches  on  Mariana  plum  stocks 
grew  fairly  well  for  two  years,  though  from  the  start  the 
peaches  grew  much  more  rapidly  than  the  plums,  so  the 
peach  trunks  were  at  two  years  twice  as  large  at  the 
union  as  below.     During  the  second  season  the  weather 
was  very  hot  and  dry,  and  the  peach  trees  after  wilting 
for  several  days  but  reviving  during  the  night,  finally 
dried  out  and  died,  evidently  because  sufficient  moisture 
was  not  furnished  by  the  slow-growing  Mariana  roots  to 
meet  the  demand  from  the  peach  leaves  during  a  period  of 


190 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


excessive  transpiration.  "While  such  an  instance  is  un- 
common, there  is  but  little  question  that  the  amount  of 
growth  will  always  be  lessened,  the  life  of  the  plant  will 
be  shortened  and  it  will  withstand  adverse  conditions  less 
readily  when  the  stock  plant  is  noticeably  slower  in 
growth  than  the  cion  plant." 

241.  Pears  on  apple  stocks.— A  writer  in  American  Gardening 
claims  to  have  grown  Flemish  Beauty  pears  on  Wagner  apple 
stocks.  The  pears  were  larger  and  of  finer  flavor  than  those  on  the 
mother  pear  tree  and  were  free  from  brown  specks.  The  grafts 
bore  every  year  for  six  years  without  a  break,  while  the  mother 
tree  failed  some  years  and  the  apple  tree  bore  only  biennially. 

Camperdown,  a  weeping  elm,  when  grafted  on  European  elm 
(Ulmus  scabra)  stocks  "weeps"  from  the  point  of  union,  the  top 
being  more  or  less  flat  at  first;  but  when  grafted  on  American  elm 
(U.  Americana),  it  grows  upright  and  very  tall,  because  the  vigor 
of  this  stock  overcomes  the  weeping  habit  to  a  large  extent. 


FIG.    160— LARGE   TREES   ARE   CONVENIENTLY   HANDLED    BY   TRUCK 


CHAPTER  XIV 
STOCK  AND  CION  HANDLING 

242.  Own-rooted  trees  are  those  produced  either  from 
seed,  cuttings  or  otherwise  than  grafting  or  budding,  so 
they  have  roots  of  the    same    wood    as    their    trunks. 
Grafted   and   budded   trees    are   said   to   become   "own- 
rooted"  when  they  have  developed  roots  from  the  cion 
above    the    union    and    the    stock    ceases    to    function. 
Grafted  grapes,  roses  and  other  plants  often  become  own 
rooted  in  the  same  way.     In  certain  cases  it  may  be  an 
advantage  for  grafted  trees  to  become  own-rooted,  as  in 
the  northwestern  states,  where  the  winters  are  severe 
and  only  hardy  roots  can  withstand  the  rigors.     In  other 
cases  it  is  a  disadvantage ;  for  instance,  dwarfs  which 
would  thus  become  standards.     Again,  if  own  roots  are 
allowed  to  grow  on  cions  of  European  grape  grafted  on 
phylloxera-resistant  American  stocks,  the  vines  would  be 
as  open  to  attacks  of  this  insect  (280)  as  if  not  grafted. 

243.  Standard  is  a  term  applied  to  trees  which  grow  the 
full,  normal  size  of  the  species  upon  their  own  roots  or 
the  roots  of  a  stock  which  does  not  dwarf  them. 

244.  The  production  of  seedlings  is  a  branch  of  the 
nursery  business  for  the  most  part  in  the  hands  of  special- 
ists who  sell  their  product  to  other  nurserymen  for  bud- 
ding and  grafting.     The  former  men  usually  are  not  con- 
cerned with  the  work  of  the  latter  and  vice  versa. 

245.  Apple  seedlings  to  be  used  as  stocks  require  a  deep,  fertile 
soil   such   as  that  in  the  Kaw  Valley  of   Kansas,  where   the  rich 
black    earth    produces    long,    straight,    plump    tap      roots.        Hard, 
gravelly  and  shallow  soils  over  hardpan  contort  the  tap  root  and 
produce  branches,  thus  spoiling  the  seedlings   for  stock  purposes. 
Long,  plump,  unbranched  tap  roots  make  two  or  three  or  even  four 
stocks.     The  ground  is  deeply  plowed  and  loosened  to  10  inches  if 
possible,  preferably  in  the  fall,  so  it  may  be  worked  at  the  earliest 
possible  moment  in  spring. 

191 


IQ2  PLANT     PROPAGATION 

The  seeds  stratified  (49)  over  winter,  or  imported  in  late 
winter,  soaked  for  three  days  with  changes  of  water  twice  daily 
and  then  stored  between  ice  cakes  in  canvas  bags,  are  sown  as  soon 
as  the  ground  can  be  handled.  This  is  essential  because  they  sprout 
at  a  very  low  temperature,  and  to  sow  sprouted  seed  means  a  poor 
stand  of  plants.  Rows  are  made  three  or  four  feet  apart,  the  seeds 
dropped  an  inch  asunder  and  covered  an  inch  or  less  deep.  In  wet 
land,  rotted  sandy  compost  or  other  loose  material  is  often  used. 
Cultivation  is  the  same  as  for  garden  vegetables.  When  the  leaves 
have  dropped  in  the  fall,  the  seedlings  are  dug  with  special  imple- 
ments, which  save  nine  to  twelve  inches  of  root.  Part  of  the  top 
is  usually  cut  off,  the  seedlings  tied  in  bundles  of  100  and  stored  in 
green  sawdust  till  needed. 


FIG.     161— SPADING    IN    NURSERY    STOCK 

246.  Apple  stocks. — For  standard  apples  French  crab 
and  Vermont  crab  seedlings  are  most  popular;  for  dwarf 
and   semi-dwarf    apples,    French    Paradise    and    Doucin 
trees  respectively,  grown  mainly  by  means  of  stools ;  that 
is,  mound  layers.  Of  all  these,  French  crab  is  most  pop- 
ular in  America.     Some  nurserymen  import  the  seed  and 
grow  their  own  seedlings,  others  buy  abroad  whenever 
they  can  get  suitable  material ;  still  others  have  formed  a 
company  which  grows  the  stock  in  France  and  distributes 
the  product  to  its  members.     Immense  quantities  of  stock 
are  grown  in  the  central  western  United  States,  notably 
Kansas,  and  sold  to  nurserymen  for  root  grafting.     Both 
French  and  Vermont  seeds  are  used. 

247.  French  crab  stock  defined. — French  crab  seed  is 
produced  by  the  natural  or  wild  apples  used  in  France 


STOCK    AND    CION    HANDLING 


193 


for  cider  making.  Seeds  from  cultivated  apple  trees  are 
considered  inferior  and  when  mixed  with  wild  crab  seeds 
reduce  the  value  of  the  sample.  The  seed,  washed  from 
the  pomace  at  cider  mills  and  on  farms,  is  dried  in  the 
open  air.  Normandy  is  the  leading  source  of  the  seed. 

In  early  winter  the  nurserymen  mix  the  newly  secured 
seed  with  sifted  river  sand  and  store  the  boxes  in  shel- 
tered places,  such  as  stables  and  outhouses,  care  being 

taken  to  prevent  attacks  of     _ 

mice.  The  sand,  kept  moist, 
is  stirred  occasionally. 
When  the  seeds  begin  to 
swell  (in  about  a  month), 
they  are  either  placed  in 
cold  frames  or  sown  in  the 
field.  In  the  former  case 
the  seedlings  are  trans- 
planted. Three  or  four 
weeks  are  needed  for  ger- 
mination. Lukewarm  water, 
used  by  some  growers,  has- 
tens germination,  but  is 
considered  inexpedient  by 
many.  Some  growers  soak 
the  seed  48  hours  before 
planting,  but  the  plan  is 
not  widely  popular.  It  is 
used  only  when  the  season 
is  precocious  and  hastened 
germination  seems  neces- 
sary. 

French  layers  (Fig.  55)  of  Doucin  and  Paradise  apples 
are  cut  from  the  parent  plants  in  the  fall  and  either  sold 
that  season  in  spite  of  their  small  roots  or  they  are  trans- 
planted and  grown  in  nursery  rows  the  following  year  to 
make  vigorous  plants.  The  latter  cost  more. 

248.  Vermont  crab  stocks  are  grown  from  seeds  gath- 


FIG.     162— FIRST     PRUNING     OF 
BUDDED    TREE 

Stock  top  and  pruners  in  center.    Budded 
tree   at    right. 


194 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


ered  at  New  England  cider  mills.  Formerly  most  of  the 
apples  used  were  apparently  seedlings,  but  seed  of  culti- 
vated varieties  has  been  finding  its  way  into  the  commer- 
cial seed  in  increasing  quantities,  due  to  the  dying  of 
seedling  trees  and  the  increase  of  cultivated  varieties, 
the  culls  of  which  are  used  for  cider.  Seedling  growers 
are  of  opinion  that  stronger  stock  trees  can  be  grown 
from  seedling  than  from  budded  or  grafted  trees.  Hence 

Vermont  seed  is  losing  its 
reputation,  partly  on  this 
account  and  partly  because 
the  seed  comes  more  and 
more  from  decrepit  trees 
and  cull  fruit.  At  the 
present  writing  most  Ver- 
mont seed  is  used  in  the 
Northern  and  the  Western 
states,  while  French  seed 
dominates  the  middle  West 
and  the  East. 

249.  Paradise  and  Dou- 
cin  stocks  for  dwarf  trees 
(252)     are    at    present    of 
small  importance  in  Amer- 
ica,    because     dwarf  trees 
have     here  not  come  into 
anything  like    the    promi- 
nence they  play  in  Europe, 
but  the   demand   for  them 
is  increasing,    more    espe- 
cially in  New  England. 

250.  Securing    apple    seed.  _ 

In  growing  apple  trees  Hansen 
of  South  Dakota  has  found  that 
the  seed  should  be  separated 
from  cider  pomace  before  plant- 
ing, since  fermentation  acts  in- 
juriously. Clean  seed  washed 


FIG.     163— STREET    TREE    SPECIFICA- 
TIONS 

A,  character  of  top;  B,  height 
of  lowest  branch;  C,  character  of 
trunk;  D,  burlap  to  prevent  barking;  E, 
wire  netting  protector;  F,  stake  to 
hold  tree  till  established;  G,  char- 
acter of  roots. 


STOCK    AND    CION    HANDLING  195 

from  pomace  within  24  hours  of  pressing  should  be 
spread  out  to  dry  for  a  day  or  two,  then  mixed  with  moist  sand 
and  buried  in  well-drained  sites  in  small  boxes  with  holes  in  the 
bottoms  for  drainage,  and  left  over  winter.  He  has  been  most  suc- 
cessful when  the  seeds  were  planted  in  beds  four  feet  wide,  sur- 
rounded by  12-inch  boards  and  given  lath  screen  shade  as  soon  as  the 
seedlings  begin  to  appear. 

251.  Dwarf  apples. — Hedrick  of  the  New  York  State 
station  reports  a  ten-year  experiment  with  dwarf  apples. 
That  part  of  the  summary  which  deals  mainly  with  the 
results  of  propagation  is  slightly  condensed  thus : 

The  results  show:  1.  That  the  union  between  stock  and  cion  is 
poorer  with  Doucin  and  French  Paradise  and  with  French  Crab, 
and  that  varieties  unite  less  well  on  French  Paradise  than  on 
Doucin  stocks.  2.  Doucin  and  French  Paradise  stocks  are  less 
hardy  than  French  Crab;  and  of  the  two  dwarfs.  French  Paradise 
is  much  less  hardy.  3.  The  greatest  weakness  of  dwarfing  stock 
for  New  York  is  surface-routing,  in  which  character  the  two 
stocks  cannot  be  distinguished.  Evil  results  following  surface 
rooting  are  winterkilling,  uprooting  of  trees  by  wind,  suckering  and 
injury  in  cultivation.  4.  Suckers  from  both  dwarfing  stocks  prove 
much  more  troublesome  than  with  standard  trees.  5.  Trees  on 
the  three  stocks  attained  the  size  commonly  ascribed  to  them ;  those 
on  French  Crab,  full  size ;  on  Doucin  half  dwarf ;  on  French 
Paradise,  true  dwarf.  In  this  test  the  dwarfing  effect  of  dwarf 
stock  is  not  as  marked  as  is  commonly  reputed. 

252.  Dwarfing  trees  to  be  grown  in  the  open  requires 
that  cions  or  buds  be  worked  on  slow-growing  stocks  and 
later  headed  in.     Plants  may  also  be  dwarfed  by  growing 
them  in  confined  quarters,  such  as  boxes,  tubs  and  pots 
too  small  for  their  normal  development.     Nurserymen  can 
go  no  further  than  supplying  the  specimens ;  after  care 
depends  upon  the  grower,  who  by  neglect  or  ignorance 
may  develop  standards  from  those  intended  to  be  dwarfs. 

When  grafted  or  budded  "dwarfs"  are  planted  so 
deeply  that  roots  are  developed  by  the  cion  above  the 
union  with  the  stock,  the  tree  will  become  "half  dwarf" 
or  even  "standard."  Such  roots  must  be  cut  off  from 
time  to  time  as  they  develop.  Dwarf  cherries  are  grown 
on  mahaleb  stocks,  but  so  are  probably  the  majority  of 
standard  cherry  trees.  Annual  removal  of  roots  from  the 
cion  and  heading-in  will  keep  the  trees  dwarf  in  habit. 


196  PLANT     PROPAGATION 

So,  too,  of  plums  upon  myrobalan,  and  apples  upon  Para- 
dise and  Doucin  stocks. 

253.  Quince  stocks  of  an  inferior  order  are  grown  from 
seed.     Large  quantities  of  good  ones  are  produced  by 
stools  or  mound  layers  (94),  but  the  great  bulk  is  now 
grown  from  cuttings,  especially  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Angers,    France.     Nurserymen    who    have    tried    other 
stocks  give  this  the  preference.     Dwarf  pears  are  more 
often  budded  than  grafted  on  quince  stocks. 

254.  Pear  on  quince  produces  larger  fruits  and  bigger  yields  than 
on  pear  stock.     LeClerc  du  Sablon  attributes  these  phenomena  to 
the  greater  accumulation  and  reserve  food  during  fall  and  winter 
in  the  trunk  and  limbs   of   the  pear-quince  union.     This   food   in 

Bring  helps    form   fruits   in   larger   quantity   and  of  greater  size, 
o  reason  is  assigned  for  the  larger  starch  accumulation. 

255.  Kieffer  pear  is  so  strong  a  grower  that  attempts  to  dwarf  it 
result  either  in  the  cion  taking  root,  thus  making  the  tree  a  standard, 
or  in  the  top  outgrowing  the  stock  so  much  that  the  union,  being 
poor,  the  tree  easily  breaks  off. 

256.  Double  working  is  sometimes  employed  to  make  a 
straight  tree  instead  of  a  straggling  one  (Winter  Nelis 
pear)  or  to  give  vigor  to  one  that  grows  weakly  or  poorly 
(King  and  Grimes  apples — subject  to  collar  rot).     The 
strong  grower  is  first  grown  upon  a  seedling  stock,  and 
when  old  enough  grafted  or  budded  with  the  desired 
variety,  thus   performing  two   graftage   operations   and 
having  three    different  kinds   of  wood — that   from   the 
seedling,  and  that  from  the  second  bud  or  cion  upon  the 
first.     Generally  the  first  cion  is  allowed  to  grow  a  year 
before  the  second  is  grafted  on  it ;  but  sometimes  when 
the  "sandwich"  of  intermediate  wood  is  to  be  short,  as 
with  pears,  both  are  set  together;  that  is,  a  cion  of  the 
desired  variety  is  grafted  in  the  cion  which  is  to  produce 
the  intermediate  wood,  and  this  one  then  inserted  in  the 
seedling  stock.     Considerable  skill  in  grafting  is  needed 
to  offset  the  extra  risk  of  failure  by  this  plan. 

The  trees  most  often  double  worked  are  probably 
pears,  some  of  which  do  not  form  good  direct  unions  with 
quince  stocks,  and  which  must  therefore  have  a  go-be- 


STOCK    AND    CION    HANDLING 


197 


tween  stock  which  does  make  a  good  union,  both  with 
them  and  with  quince.  Among  varieties  usually  treated 
this  way,  the  following  are  perhaps  best  known :  Bosc, 
Winter  Nelis,  Sheldon,  Washington,  Marie  Louise,  Gan- 
sel's  Bergamot,  Josephin  de  Malines,  Dix,  Dunmore  and 
Paradise.  These  are 
worked  on  one  of  the 
varieties  that  do  make 
better  unions  on  quince 
than  on  pear;  for  in- 
stance, Angouleme, 
Louise  Bonne,  Vicar, 
Glout  Morceau,  Easter, 
Diel,  Amalis  and  Au- 
tumn Long  Green.  Al- 
ways in  double  working 
dwarf  pears  both  opera- 
tions must  be  as  near  the 
ground  as  possible,  so 
only  an  inch  or  two  of 
the  first  pear  wood  shall 
be  left  when  the  double 
work  is  complete.  Popu- 
lar apple  "go-betweens" 
are  Northern  Spy.  Tol- 
man,  Ben  Davis  and 
Delicious  Amonp-  nlums  FIG-  164— TRIMMING  AN  ORNAMENTAL 

TREE    FOR    FORM 

Lombard      is      perhaps  This  tree  may  be  sold  when  25  or  30  feet  t«n. 
most  in  favor. 

257.  Origin  of  pear  stocks. — Pear  seed  is  secured  in 
France  from  the  perry  (pear  cider)  presses.  It  is  several 
times  as  expensive  as  apple  seed,  because  each  seed  must 
be  picked  from  the  core  by  hand.  Most  pear  stocks  used 
in  America  are  grown  in  France.  Our  nurserymen  pre- 
fer them  because  they  are  started  in  seed  beds  and  trans- 
planted while  still  small.  This  tends  to  make  their  roots 


198 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


branch  and  to  make  them  superior  to  untransplanted 
stock,  both  for  budding  and  grafting.  Many  American 
nurserymen  consider  Japanese  stocks  stronger  than 
French  ones,  but  French  nurserymen  won't  use  them 
because  fruit  growers  there  are  prejudiced  against  them. 
Some  pear  seed,  chiefly  from  Kieffer  trees,  is  collected  in 
Maryland,  Delaware  and  New  Jersey  canneries  and  used 

in  the  United  States,  but 
nurserymen  consider 
seed  from  Japan  to  be 
better.  Though  most  of 
the  Japanese  pear  seed- 
lings are  imported  from 
Japan,  some  arrive  from 
Holland  and  France. 

258.  Pear  propagation. 
—Standard  pears  are 
generally  propagated  by 
whip  grafting  (305)  on 
whole  stocks  at  the 
crown.  Only  a  small  part 
of  the  lower  end  of  the 
tap  root  is  cut  off.  The 
cion  is  shorter  than  in 
most  apple  grafting — 
about  four  inches.  Wax- 
ing is  necessary.  When 
this  is  done  indoors,  and 
when  the  wood  is  fairly 
warm,  injury  from  the  warm  wax  is  avoided  by  dropping 
the  grafts  as  waxed  into  cold  water,  after  which  they  are 
made  into  bundles  and  stored  like  apple-root  grafts. 
Greater  care  is  needed  in  planting  because  of  their  length. 
Larger  percentages  of  these  grafts  will  grow  than  would 
in  the  case  of  ordinary  root  grafts  in  which  the  loss  is 
counted  at  about  50  per  cent. 


FIG.    165— BUNDLE   OF  WHOLE   ROOT 
GRAFTS 

These    are    about    9    inches    long,    the    most 
convenient    length    for    handling 


STOCK    AND    CION    HANDLING 


199 


259.  Spring-budding  pears.  —  In  Maryland  Japanese  seedling 
pear  stocks  were  placed  in  a  hotbed  in  early  April  in  six  inches  of 
sand.  The  manure  and  sun  heat  made  the  sap  start  so  that  in  eight 
days  the  stocks  were  ready  to  bud  by  the  ordinary  method.  They 
were  taken  to  a  warm  room,  budded  with  Mikado  pear  buds  and 
placed  back  in  the  sand  to  "take."  In  about  eight  more  days,  all 
having  taken  nicely,  they  were  transferred  to  damp  sawdust  to 
prevent  further  growth  till  they  could  be  set  in  the  nursery  a  few 
days  later.  During  summer,  under  good  culture,  they  grew  about 
two  feet,  and  by  fall  were  large  enough  to  transplant  in  orchards. 
The  method  is  practicable  on  a  large  scale. 

260  Peach  stocks  are  secured  from  seeds  usually  strati- 
fied the  previous  winter  and  sown  in  spring.  Seed  con- 
sidered best  comes  from  seedling-  trees  in  the  mountain- 
ous parts  of  the  Carolinas  and  adjacent  states,  Oklahoma 
and  Arkansas.  Pits  from  the  canneries  are  not  favored 
by  some  nurserymen,  but  are  extensively  used  by  others. 

Pits  are  sometimes  planted  in  fall    _^ 

in  nursery  rows,  but  since  seedlings 
may  have  difficulty  in  breaking 
through  the  soil  in  spring,  this 
plan  is  not  generally  popular.  Usual- 
ly the  pits  are  stratified  as  soon  as 
received  in  fall  or  early  winter,  the 
object  being  to  have  them  freeze 
and  split.  On  a  small  scale  stratify- 
ing may  be  in  shallow  boxes  of  sand 
or  soil,  but,  on  a  large  scale,  basin- 
like  pits  large  enough  to  hold  several 
bushels  are  made  in  soil.  Earth  is 
thrown  over  the  seeds  and  kept  FIG.  166  —  GRAFTED 
moist  or  frozen  all  winter.  If  planted  CHESTKo  ?!ARSNG  AT 
without  being  stratified  only  a  small 

percentage  of  seeds  will  sprout  the  first  season,  the  bal- 
ance continuing  the  following  year  or  two. 

261.  Plum  stocks. — Nurserymen  differ  widely  in  their 
preferences  of  plum  stocks,  depending  mainly  on  cost, 
ease  of  working,  and  adaptability  of  cion  to  stock. 
Myrobalan  is  the  leading  general  purpose  stock,  though 


2OO  PLAXT     PROPAGATION 

Japanese  and  peach  are  often  preferred  for  sandy  soils, 
Americana  for  American  varieties  and  St.  Julien,  though 
costly,  for  Domestica  and  Insititia.  Mariana  is  still 
used  in  the  central  southwest,  but  in  most  other  se.ctjons 
is  unpopular  because  it  makes  poor  unions. 

In  Europe,  myrobalan  is  considered  a  dwarfing  stock 
which  produces  short-lived  trees ;  in  America  it  is  widely 
preferred  because  it  produces  larger  and  finer  two-year 
trees  than  do  other  stocks.  In  the  South,  however,  it 
suckers  badly,  and  in  the  prairie  states  it  winterkills. 
Its  cheapness,  ease  of  budding  and  general  perfection  of 
unions  are  strong  points.  Because  of  its  variability  there 
are  many  "true"  and  "false"  mybrobalans  among  nursery- 
men. Formerly  stocks  in  France  were  grown  from  cut- 
tings ;  now  apparently  from  seed. 

St.  Julien  has  been  claimed  to  produce  longer-lived, 
thriftier,  hardier,  deeper-feeding  trees  which  sprout  less 
than  those  on  other  stocks ;  but  its  cost,  hardness  to  bud, 
poor  growth  and  liability  to  fungi  in  the  nursery  are 
against  it.  Horse  plum  is  now  "wholly  superseded." 

Peach  is  largely  used  for  many  varieties  of  plum  to 
grow  on  warm,  sandy  or  gravelly  soils.  It  conduces  to 
quick  growth  and  early  bearing  and  the  roots  produce  no 
sprouts.  Budding  is  easy,  the  trees  make  vigorous 
nursery  growth,  probably  at  less  cost  than  on  any  other 
stock.  Japanese  varieties  do  especially  well  on  peach. 
For  Domestica  and  Insititia  varieties  it  is  not  so  valuable 
because  of  poor  unions  and  tender  roots.  Varieties  said 
not  to  unite  well  with  peach  are :  Lombard,  Damson, 
Yellow  Egg  and  Washington.  Peach  borers  are  some- 
times troublesome  on  peach  stocks. 

Mariana  appeals  more  to  nurserymen  than  to  fruit 
growers,  because  it  readily  strikes  roots  from  cuttings, 
and  nursery  growth  is  ideal.  Growers  favor  it  less  than 
formerly,  and  it  is  declining  in  popularity  because  it  has  a 
dwarfing  effect  and  is  prone  to  sucker. 

Americana  seedlings  are  the  only  ones  that  will  with- 


STOCK    AND    C1ON    HANDLING  2OI 

stand  the  rigorous  northwest  winters.  They  are  used 
only  for  native  varieties.  It  is  not  known  how  success- 
fully other  plums  can  be  grown  on  them,  though  W.  &  T. 
Smith  of  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  report  their  use  as  satisfactory. 
As  yet  they  are  expensive,  so  they  are  not  likely  soon  to 
compete  with  myrobalan  and  peach  stocks.  Their  chief 
fault  is  their  suckering  habit. 

Munsonia  is  reputed  to  be  "pre-eminently  adapted  for 
low,  wet  lands."  Kerr  believes  P.  hortulana  excellent 
because  it  :iever  suckers.  P.  Angustifolia,  var.  Watsoni 
promises  to  be  a  dwarfing  species.  P.  bessyi,  according  to 
Hansen,  also  dwarfs  varieties  worked  on  it,  but  is  hardy 


FIG.    167— "SPROUTING"   BUDDED   NURSERY  STOCK 

Men  standing  are  foremen;  men  kneeling  are  removing  all  branches  except  the  bud 
shoots. 

and  produces  precocious  and  prolific  trees.  For  top- 
working  Domestica,  Lombard  is  probably  best. 
The  sooner  done  the  better  because  slow  and  crooked 
growth  is  common  with  late  working.  Early  spring 
grafting  and  late  summer  budding  are  best. 

262.  Cherry  stocks.* — Despite  the  antiquity  and  the  im- 
portance of  the  cherry,  the  question  of  stocks  is  un- 
settled. Fruit  growers  favor  mazzard;  nurserymen, 
mahaleb,  which  they  consider  fit,  at  least,  for  sweet,  and 
best  for  sour  kinds.  Further,  they  say  it  is  impossible  to 
grow  cherries  on  mazzard  at  prices  fruit  growers  are 

*SynQpsized  from  The  Cherries  of  New  York  by  Hedrick. 


202 


PLANT     PROPAGATION 


willing  to  pay.  No  systematic  attempts  have  been  made 
to  settle  the  controversy. 

The  mazzard  or  wild  sweet  cherry  (Primus  avium), 
used  for  centuries  as  a  stock,  grows  30  to  40  feet  tall  with 
trunks  often  18  inches  in  diameter.  In  America  it  is 
tender  to  cold,  but  grows  vigorously.  Its  seedlings,  im- 
ported from  France,  are  badly  attacked  in  nurseries  by 
fungi,  but  it  produces  uniform  trees  and  fruit. 

Mahaleb  (Prunus  mahaleb)  is  a  thick,  slender-branched 
bush  with  inedible  fruits,  differing  markedly  from  both 
sweet  and  sour  cherries.  The  wood  structure  "one 


FIG.    168— THREE    UNUSUAL    STYLES    OF    GRAFTING 

A,  bow  grafting  of  vine;  a,  cion;  b,  ligature  to  increase  pressure  of  cion  to 
stock;  c,  tightly  wound  ligature  to  check  sap  flow;  d,  e,  slits  for  insertion  of 
cion.  B,  saddle  graft;  f,  stock;  g,  cion;  h,  parts  fitted  together;  C,  veneer  graft; 
i,  stock;  j,  cion;  k,  parts  fitted  and  tied;  1,  graft  after  union. 

would  expect  to  differ  very  materially"  from  that  of 
sweet  and  sour  cherries  so  that  even  if  the  union  proved 
normal  there  would  be  difficulty  in  the  passage  of  solu- 
tions between  stock  and  cion.  This  cherry  is  propagated 
almost- wholly  from  seed,  though  it  may  easily  be  grown 
from  layers,  cuttings  and  suckers.  The  American  supply 
comes  from  France.  Mahaleb  seems  to  have  been  used 
in  the  United  States  since  about  1850,  first  as  a  dwarfing 


STOCK    AND    CION    HANDLING 


203 


stock  but  now  for  all  purposes.     Probably  95  per  cent  of 
our  cherries  are  budded  on  it.     Why? 

Doubtless  it  is  easier  to  make  better-looking  nursery 
trees  on  mahaleb  than  on  mazzard,  and  it  is  cheaper. 
Mazzard  has  the  faults  of  its  species — capriciousness  as  to 
soils,  climates,  cultivation,  pruning,  diseases  and  insects ; 
mahaleb  is  adapted  to  wider  range  of  soils,  is  hardier  to 
heat  and  cold,  less  particular  as  to  tillage,  will  stand 


FIG.   169— UNPACKING  AND  HEELING-IN  NURSERY  STOCK 

This  work  should  be  done  immediately  on  arrival  of  stock,  unless  trees  are  in 
prime  condition  and  can  be  planted  at  once.  If  shriveled  or  dry  the  trees  should  be 
soaked  in  water  two  or  three  days  before  planting. 

more  pruning,  is  less  susceptible  to  insects  and  is  not 
badly  affected  by  shot-hole  fungus.  It  is  more  easily 
worked,  both  as  to  actual  budding  and  to  length  of  sea- 
son. It  also  ripens  its  trees  better  and  may  thus  be  dug 
earlier  than  trees  on  mazzard. 

Fruit  growers  in  their  turn  find  trees  on  mahaleb 
stocks  hardier,  though  not  as  hardy  as  might  be  wished ; 


2O4  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

more  dwarf ;  more  precocious  as  to  bearing- ;  as  good  as  to 
size  of  fruit  borne ;  poorer  in  union  than  mazzard ;  bet- 
ter adapted  to  diverse  soils,  especially  light  ones ;  also  to 
shallow  culture;  shorter  lived;  less  productive  and 
profitable  under  equal  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  than 
trees  on  mazzard,  this  last  being  the  consensus  of 
opinion  among  the  great  cherry  regions  of  California, 
Oregon,  Washington,  Michigan  and  New  York. 

263.  Other  cherry  stocks. — Few  fruits  have  such  a 
wealth  of  other  stocks  to  choose  among,  yet  have  been 
tried  so  little.  Russian  cherries,  come  fairly  true  from 
seed,  and  make  good  orchard  plants  on  their  own  roots. 
Only  sour  kinds  should  be  used — Bessarabian,  Brusseler 
Braune,  Double  Natte, .  George  Glass,  Lutovka,  Early 
Morello,  Osthein  and  Vladimir.  These,  it  is  believed, 
would  have  some  dwarfing  effect.  Ostheim  and  Morello 
have  been  used  successfully  in  the  North  Mississippi 
Valley.  Bird,  pin  or  pigeon  cherry  (Prunus  pennsyl- 
vanica)  is  often  used  as  a  hardy  stock  for  cold  regions 
and  as  a  makeshift,  since  it  dwarfs  the  trees  and  suckers 
badly.  In  the  Northwest  the  sand  cherry  (P.  pumila] 
is  used  in  cold,  dry  regions  for  sour  cherries.  It  is  as 
easy  to  work  as  mahaleb  and  its  seedlings  are  large 
enough  to  set  in  nursery  rows  the  following  spring  for 
August  budding.  Winter-rooted  cuttings  set  in  the 
nursery  with  two  to  four  inches  growth  can  also  be 
budded  in  August.  This  species  has  made  good  unions 
with  hardy  cherries  by  budding  and  does  not  dwarf  the 
trees  more  the  first  five  years  than  does  mahaleb.  In 
Japan  the  Dai-Sakura,  supposed  to  be  a  variety  of  P. 
psendocerasns,  grown  by  nurserymen  from  mound  layers 
and  cuttings  for  stock,  has  a  somewhat  dwarfing  influence 
on  European  cherries.  It  should  be  tried  in  America. 
Among  the  many  other  stocks  available  some  have 
already  been  introduced  by  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture.  Probably  several  of  these  or  the  others 
mentioned,  will  prove  better  than  mazzard  and  mahaleb. 

Cherries  are  usually  budded;  they  may  be  more  or  less 


STOCK    AND    CION    HANDLING 


205 


easily  root  grafted,  though  perhaps  not  as  profitably. 
Whole  roots  are  generally  used,  the  union  being  made  at 
the  crown.  In  the  cold  Northwest  the  work  is  done  with 
the  intention  of  making  the  trees  own-rooted. 

Cherry  buds  are  generally  taken  from  nursery  stock. 
Apparently  varieties  do  not  wear  out,  since  old  kinds  have 
lost  no  characters  accredited  to  them,  even  centuries  ago ; 
nor  does  taking  buds  from  vigorous,  mature  trees  or 
even  decrepit  trees  seem  to  make  a  difference — all  alike 
produce  the  variety.  Hence,  the  hypotheses  that  fruit 
trees  degenerate  and  that  they  may  be  improved  by  bud 
selection  finds  no  support  in  the  cherry. 

264.  Cherry  grafting.— At  the  Canadian  Experimental  Farms  root 
grafts  of  Morello  on  commercial  stocks  gave  poor  results;  crown 
grafts  good  ones.     For  budding,   the   bird   cherry    (P.   pennsylva- 
nica)  gave  so  much  sap  that  buds  did  not  unite  well. 

265.  Cherry  grafting  and  budding.— Cherry  cions,  according  to 
a  writer  in  the  Gardeners'  Chronicle,  should  be  cut  at  least  two 
months  before  grafting  and  buried  in  a  sheltered  frost-proof  place. 
Established  stocks  are  budded  in  July,  not  at  the  base,  but  at  the 
exact  height  of  the  head.     Stocks  that  fail  to  take  are  grafted  the 
following  spring,  when  the  stocks  are  headed  back  as  close  to  the 
ground   as    convenient   and    whip   grafted,    cions   being   about   five 
inches    long,    bound    with    raffia    and    covered   with    prepared    clay 


FIG.    170— BARK    GRAFTING    IN    VARIOUS    STAGES 


1.    Stock.      2,    cions 
but  two  cions  grew. 


tied.      3,    cions    waxed.      4,    cion.      5,    results; 


206 


PLANT     PROPAGATION 


(clay  and  fresh  horse  manure).  A  point  is  made  above  and  below 
the  bandage  to  shed  water.  In  less  than  a  month  the  buds  should 
start.  The  shoots  are  brittle  and  need  staking. 

266.  Rose  stocks  are  sometimes  grown  from  seeds  sown 
as  soon  as  ripe  or  stored  in  the  hips  till  spring;  hardy 
species  outdoors,  tender  ones  under  glass.  Layers  and 
root  cuttings  are  often  used,  but  semi-mature  stem  cut- 
tings from  forced  plants  in  midwinter  under  glass  are 
most  popular.  Manetti  and  multiflora  stocks  imported 


FIG.   171— TREES  STACKED  IN   FROST  PROOF  NURSERY  CELLAR 
This  is  the  plan  followed  by  the  largest  nursery  companies  of  the  North 

from  Europe  are  most  popular.  In  America  the  former 
are  most  widely  used.  They  must  have  their  buds  re- 
moved to  prevent  sprouting,  which  they  will  otherwise 
surely  do.  Budding  in  America  is  done  close  to  the 
ground,  but  in  Europe  the  popular  "tree"  roses  are  made 
by  inserting  the  buds  at  three  or  four  feet.  Multiflora 
is  a  producer  of  quick  results.  Its  spring-made  cuttings 
are  ready  for  budding  in  six  months.  Home-grown  seed- 
lings usually  require  two  years  to  reach  budding  size. 


STOCK  AND  CION  HANDLING  2OJ 

Winter  grafting  with  dormant  wood  makes  good  pot 
plants  of  hybrid  perpetual  varieties.  Rosa  rubiginosa 
(sweet  briar),  R.  watsoniana,  and  several  other  species 
are  used  to  some  extent.  Usually  the  shield  method  of 
budding,  but  sometimes  veneer  grafting,  is  employed. 

267.  Hybrid  stocks  for  roses.— A  writer  in  American  Gardening 
considers  Manetti   stocks    (popularly  used)    unsuited  to  American 
climatic   conditions.     Where  perfect  hardiness   is  required  he   has 
found  Rosa  se'tigera,  R.   Wichuraiana  and  R.  rubiginosa  superior; 
for,  he  says,  "all  make  good,  deep  roots,  and  are  little  affected  by 
dry    weather   when    established,    and    are    not    at    all    disposed    to 
sucker."     The  best  of  all  stocks  he  considers  to  be  a  cross  between 
Clothilde  Soupert  and  Crimson  Rambler,  both  varieties  of  R.  Multi- 
flora.     These  stocks  are  exceptionally  vigorous,  do  not  sprout,  and 
are  easily  budded  and  in  hardiness  little  inferior  to  the  native  species. 
The  roots  are  easily  splice-grafted,  but  the  stems  are  not  so  satis- 
factory for  grafting.     For  tree  rose  effects  he  prefers  to  bud  high 
on  strong  sweet  briar  shoots  and  trim  off  all  other  shoots  as  soon 
as  the  bud  has  formed  a  fair  top. 

268.  Grafted   roses  for  forcing.— A.   B.   Scott  has   grown  half 
a   dozen    varieties   of    forcing   roses    on   their   own   roots    and   on 
manetti    stocks.      Since    all    but   American    Beauty    and    Perle    des 
Jardins  did  much  better  as  grafts,  he  concludes  that  grafted  roses 
make    strong,   vigorous   plants   much   quicker   than   roses   on   their 
own  roots,  produce  as  many,  if  not  more  flowers,  of  which  a  larger 
proportion   are  extra  fine,   and  the  plants  are  said  to  have  more 
vitality.     Manetti  is  considered  best  for  stocks. 

269.  Citrus  propagation. — Each  principal  citrus  section 
and  soil  has  its  preference  of  stocks.     In  the  heavy,  moist 
fertile  soil  of  Louisiana  and  Mississippi,  Citrus  trifoliata, 
a    deciduous    species,  leads    because    of    its    vigor    and 
hardiness,   which   are   imparted  to  the  cion   because   it 
becomes  dormant  in  fall.     In  northeastern  Florida  tri- 
foliata also  leads,  though  some  of  the  more  lusty-grow- 
ing stocks  give  good  results  in  deep  sandy  lands.     In  cen- 
tral   Florida,   on   sandy   soil,   rich    in   vegetable   matter, 
pomelo  stock  does  best,  though  the  sour  orange  gives  a 
hardier  tree.     In  South  Florida  rough  lemon  is  far  in  the 
lead.     It  is  a  rampant  grower  which  does  well  on  soils 
almost  sterile  for  other  stocks.     The  fruit  it  grows  from 
cions  worked  on  it  is  likely  to  be  coarse.     On  heavy  soils 
free  from  limestone,  pomelo  and  sour  orange  do  well, 


208 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


though  the  trees  are  rather  slower  but  produce  better 
ripening,  smoother  fruit.  Lime  stocks  make  trees  sen- 
sitive to  cold  and  give  too  many  failures. 

Investigation  has  shown  that  for  Florida,  orange  grow- 
ers prefer  rough  lemon  stock  for  "high  pine"  lands.  Sour 
stock  is  considered  better  than  sweet  stock  for  all  kinds 
of  land.  In  Louisiana,  sour  stock  is  preferred  by  about 
90  per  cent  of  the  planters.  California  growers  who  have 
tried  sweet  and  sour  stocks  side  by  side  on  a  large  scale 
give  data  which  warrant  the  conclusions :  1,  that  sour 
stock  trees  make  more  thrifty  •  growth ;  2,  are  freer 
from  disease  and  are  fully  resistant  to  "foot  rot" ;  3,  less 
liable  to  injury  by  cold  while  young;  4,  the  quality  of 
the  fruit  is  not  impaired. 


FIG.    172— ENGLISH    "CLEFT"    GRAFT 

A,  Improper  angle  for  large  cuttings,  should  not  be  parallel  but  slightly  away 
from  long  side;  B,  ditto  for  small  cuttings;  C,  D,  proper  angle  for  tongues; 
E,  F,  uniting  and  tying. 

Orange  on  Citrus  trifoliata  stocks  in  California  have  made  good 
growth  in  open  culture.  Satsuma  and  other  varieties  of  the  Man- 
darin class  at  five  to  nine  years  old  were  eight  to  ten  feet  high. 
This  stock  appears  to  resist  drouth  especially  well,  and  the  varieties 
of  orange  and  other  citrus  fruits  grafted  on  it  appear  to  stand  10 
degrees  more  cold  than  on  other  stocks  and  also  to  come  earlier 
into  bearing. 

Seeds  from  only  mature  specimens  should  be  saved  for 
growing  seedlings.  It  should  be  plump.  Culls  and 
drops  allowed  to  rot  are  used,  the  seed  being  washed  out 
and  air  dried  after  sifting  in  a  strong  stream  of  water. 
When  the  ground  is  warm  enough  the  seed  is  sown  in 


STOCK  AND  CION  HANDLING  2OO, 

southern  Florida  and  the  West  Indies  as  early  as  De- 
cember, but  in  northern  Florida,  Louisiana  and  California 
not  till  February  or  March.  Cultivation  is  the  same  as 
for  garden  crops.  By  fall  following  the  seedlings  will  be 
6  to  12  inches  tall  and  one-fourth  inch  thick.  A  tree 
digger  may  be  used  to  lift  them  for  transplanting  in 
nursery  rows,  where  they  are  kept  free  of  soil  crust  and 
weeds. 

270.  Citrus  stocks  may  be  propagated  by  stern  or  root 
cuttings  of  fairly  mature  wood,  but  they  are  not  as  satis- 
factory for  budding  as  are  seedling  trees  because  they 
grow  slowly  and  are  more  irregular.  Budding,  grafting 


FIG.  173— PACKING  NURSERY  STOCK  FOR  SHIPMENT 

and  inarching  are  all  used  more  or  less ;  the  first  is  most 
popular.  Dormant  budding  is  usually  done  in  late 
autumn  or  in  spring  after  vigorous  growth  has  begun, 
other  budding  may  be  done  at  almost  any  time  during  the 
growing  season.  Bud  sticks  are  generally  cut  and  stored 
a  few  days  or  even  weeks  before  budding,  because  it  is 
believed  a  larger  percentage  will  grow.  The  process  of 
budding  is  practically  the  same  as  for  peach,  except  that 
the  cross  cut  is  made  at  the  lower  end  of  the  longitudinal 
cut. 

"Lopping"  the  tops  of  the  stocks  is  done  about  three 
weeks  after  the  budding  to  force  the  buds  to  develop 
shoots.  The  cuts,  made  about  two  inches  above  the 


210 


PLANT     PROPAGATION 


bales    and   boxes   ready   for   shipme 


cellar  bundled  ready  for  baling  and  boxing;  below, 


STOCK  AND  CION  HANDLING 


211 


buds,  do  not  completely  sever  the  tops,  which  are  bent 
over.  One  method  is  to  bend  the  tops  of  one  row  toward, 
say  the  south  end,  and  those  of  the  next  toward  the  north, 
so  the  cultivator  may  go  up  one  inter-row  space  and  down 
the  next  without  serious  interference.  The  tops  remain 
attached  till  the  sprouts  are  say  15  inches  tall. 

Another  method,  dependent  somewhat  upon  placing 
the  nursery  rows  in  pairs  about  three  feet  apart,  with 
wider  inter-rows  between  the  next  pair,  is  to  lop  the  tops 
of  the  pairs  into  the  narrow  middles  and  leave  them  there 
as  a  mulch  until  early  fall.  Some  nurserymen  favor  this, 
because  they  believe  a  better  growth  of  sprouts  is  thus 


FIG.    175— THREE  METHODS   OF   BENCH   GRAFTING   GRAPES 
A   to    e,  whipgraft;    f  to   i,   grafting   with   galvanized   wire;   j   to   n,   Champin   graft. 

secured.  The  wider  inter-rows  are  cultivated.  In  every 
case  when  tops  are  finally  cut  off,  the  stubs  are  cut  off 
smoothly,  close  to  the  buds,  to  favor  healing  without 
scars.  Staking  the  young  trees  is  necessary,  because  the 
unions  are  at  first  weak. 

271.  Grape  grafting  is  usually  a  necessity  only  (1)  for 
working  over  undesirable  varieties  or  seedlings  to  desired 
kinds  and  (2)  for  growing  European  varieties  in  regions 
where  the  phylloxera  (280)  exists.  The  former,  scarcely 
a  nursery  practice,  is  made  by  cleft  grafts  below  the  soil 
surface,  without  tying  or  waxing,  but  with  earth  mounded 


212  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

over  the  union  and  up  to  the  upper  bud.  The  latter  is 
done  in  a  variety  of  ways  (Fig.  175).  The  reason  for 
doing  it  is  that  American  stocks,  the  ones  always  used, 
are  less  susceptible  to  phylloxera  injury  than  are 
European  varieties.  Care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  root- 
ing of  the  cions,  else  no  advantage  will  follow  grafting. 
Attention  is  called  to  grape-grafting  experiments  in  the 
paragraphs  which  follow. 

Contrary  to  general  belief,  Daniel  declares  that  the  character  of 
the  cion  graft  and  of  the  wine  produced  from  the  fruit  is  often 
changed,  largely  because  of  the  difference  in  nutrition  as  a  result 
of  callusing  the  grafted  parts  and  the  consequent  difficulty  of  sap 
circulation.  By  taking  advantage  of  such  changes,  Daniel  believes 
that  it  will  be  possible  to  produce  new  varieties  by  grafting  so  as 
to  combine  the  good  qualities  of  French  fruit  with  the  phylloxera 
resistance  of  American  sorts.  Grape  growing  by  direct  producers 
(those  on  their  own  roots)  is  considered  most  desirable,  so  they 
should  be  sought  by  grafting. 

Degrully,  a  French  scientist,  has  pointed  out  that  variations  in 
vines,  due  to  grafting,  should  not  cause  apprehension.  The  thou- 
sands of  acres  reconstructed  on  American  stocks  still  thrive  and 
produce  abundantly  20,  25  and  30  years  after  grafting.  Variations 
due  to  grafting,  he  maintains,  are  as  yet  only  of  scientific  interest. 

272.  Effects  of  vine  grafting. — Because  of  agitation,  the  Society 
of  Agriculture  of  France  appointed  a  committee  to  investigate  ef- 
fects of  grafting  on  yield  and  quality  of   grapes  and  wine.     The 
committee  concluded  that  where  the  factors  of  adaptation  and  af- 
finity of  stock  and  cion,  as  well  as  other  necessary  conditions  for 
successful  grape  culture,  have  been  realized,  there  appears  to  be 
nothing  to  warrant  the  claims  that  grafting  has  a  deleterious  effect 
on  yield  and  quality  of  product. 

273.  Experiments  in  grape  grafting — Tn  California,  experiments 
in  grape  propagation  warranted   the   following  slightly  condensed 
conclusions  (Cal.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  127)  :     1,  A  cutting  graft  of  suit- 
able variety  makes  as  large  and  vigorous  growth  as  a  simple  cutting, 
so  by  bench   grafting  no  time   is   lost  in    establishing   a   resistant 
vineyard.     2,  Resistant  varieties  difficult  to  root  but  easy  to  graft 
when  old  should  not  be  bench  grafted.     3,  Care  in  callusing,  plant- 
ing and  treatment  in  nursery  and  especially  in  keeping  the  grafts 
moist  from  the  time  they  are  made  till  they  are  in  the  callusing  bed, 
(Fig.  105)   will  enable  even  an  inexperienced  grafter  to  obtain  at 
least   60   per   cent   of   good,   grafted    plants.     4,  Callusing   in    sand 
insures  more  perfect  unions  and  a  larger  percentage  of  successful 
grafts  than  planting  directly  in  the  nursery.     5,  The  moisture  of 
the   callusing   bed    should   not   be    excessive,   and   the   temperature 
should   be   relatively   warm.     6,  The     growing     grafts     should    be 


STOCK  AND  CION  HANDLING 


2I3 


watched  closely  in  order  to  see  that  the  roots  of  the  cions  are  re- 
moved before  they  become  large,  and  that  the  raffia  is  cut  before 
it  strangles  the  graft.  7.  The  English  cleft  graft  (Fig-  172)  is 
preferable  to  the  Champin  graft  (Fig.  175).  because  it  gives  more 
perfect  unions  and  can  be  made  with  more  accuracy  and  rapidity. 
8,  Cions  of  two  eyes  are  preferable  to  those  of  one  eye,  as  they 
give  more  chances  of  success.  9,  Rupestris  St.  George  seems  to  be 
remarkably  adapted  to  California  soils  (except  the  heaviest  clays) 
and  conditions,  and  is  to  be  preferred  to  any  variety  yet  tested 
wherever  deep  penetration  of  roots  is  possible  and  desirable.  10, 
All  the  eyes  of  the  Rupestris  stock  should  be  cut  deeply  and  care- 
fully. 11,  A  vigorous  and  large-growing  Vinifera  cion  promotes 
an  equally  vigorous  growth  of  Rupestris  St.  George  used  as  stock. 
274.  Bench  grafting  of  grapes  experimentally  reported  by  Hed- 
rick  of  the  New  York  state  station  presents 
the  following  main  features :  •  The  grafted 
grapes  were  more  productive  than  those 
on  their  own  roots;  they  were  a  few  days 
earlier;  the  19  varieties  employed  were 
all  congenial  to  the  three  stocks  used. 
Samples  of  the  stocks  used  are  shown  at 
1,  Fig.  157.  Two  eye  cuttings  six  to 
eight  inches  long  were  taken  in  the  fall 
and  buried  in  sand  till  needed  in  late 
March,  when  the  work  was  done.  Roots 
were  cut  back  to  an  inch  for  convenience 
in  handling  by  whip  grafting  (Fig.  157). 
Grafts  on  the  previous  season's  wood  gave 
many  suckers;  those  on  the  original  much 
fewer.  After  the  operation  the  grafts  were 
stored  for  callusing  until  planting  time.  All 
three  of  the  stocks  used — Clevener,  St. 
George  and  Gloire — are  recommended 
for  trial  commercially,  and  three  others 
suggested  as  promising ;  viz.,  Riparia  Grand 
Glabre,  and  two  hybrids  between  Vitis 
riparia  and  V,  rupestris  known  as  3,306 
and  3,309.  During  the  growing  season, 
shoots  from  the  stock  (Fig.  157)  and  roots 
from  the  cion  (Fig.  157)  must  be  re- 
moved at  least  twice ;  the  earlier  the  better,  stock  below  u 

275.  Bench-grafting  cuttings  is  unhesi- 
tatingly     recommended      by      Biolitti      of 

California  for  the  following  reasons :  Both  stock  and 
cion  are  young  and  of  the  same  size;  unions  are  therefore  strong 
and  permanent.  Grafting  may  be  done  under  conditions  favorable 
to  rapid  and  effective  work,  in  any  weather,  during  three  or  four 
months,  on  rainy  days  when  other  work  is  not  pressing  or  cannot 


FIG.    176— GRAFTED 
GRAPE  VINE 


Note  shoot  growing   from 
at   label. 


214 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


be  done.  One  man  who  thoroughly  understands  all  details  can 
oversee  several  unskilled  workmen,  making  it  possible  to  employ 
cheap  labor  for  much  of  the  work.  Cultural  conditions  are  more 
easily  controlled.  There  is  less  danger  of  inferior  results  due  to 
excessively  wet  or  dry  weather  during  the  growing  season.  In  the 
nursery  the  vines  can  be  cultivated,  irrigated  and  generally  attended 
to  much  more  perfectly  than  in  the  field.  Rigid  selection  of  vines 
for  planting  can  be  made,  rendering  it  possible  to  have  nothing  in 
the  vineyard  but  strong  plants  and  perfect  unions.  As  perfect 
stands  can  be  obtained  in  vineyards  the  first  year  in  any  soil  or 
season  as  when  planting  ordinary  non-resistant  vines.  Unions  of 
vines  can  be  placed  exactly  where  wanted.  Land  where  the  vineyard 
is  to  be  planted  can  be  used  for  other  crops  one  year  longer  than 
when  field  grafting  is  adopted.  All  cultural  operations  during  the 
first  year  are  much  less  expensive 
than  in  vineyard  grafting,  as 
they  are  spread  over  a  much 
smaller  area-  Two  acres  of  nursery 
will  produce  enough  bench  grafts  to 
plant  100  acres  of  vineyard. 

In  short,  starting  a  resistant  vine- 
yard by  means  of  bench  grafts  is 
much  better  than  by  any  other 
method  used  at  present,  because  it 
is  least  costly  and  gives  best  results. 
This  is  true  whether  the  bench  grafts 
are  produced  at  home  or  bought  at 
present  market  rates.  Growers  are 
earnestly  cautioned,  however,  against 
planting  any  but  first  choice  bench 
grafts ;  second  and  third  choice  are 
little  better  than  field  grafts- 
All  that  can  be  said  in  favor  of 
nursery  grafting  and  bench  grafting 
roots,  is  that  vines  so  produced  are 
fairly  good  when  bench  grafting  is 
impracticable.  These  methods  permit 
root  grafting  with  stocks  which, 
owing  to  rooting  difficulty,  are  very 
difficult  to  bench  graft  as  cuttings.  By  their  means  resistant  cut- 
tings too  small  to  bench  graft  may  be  utilized,  and  a  larger  percent- 
age of  well-grown  grafted  vines  obtained  from  the  nursery. 

On  the  other  hand,  as  the  stock  is  at  least  two  years  old  when 
grafted,  there  is  reason  to  fear  that  with  some  stocks  many  unions 
will  fail  as  the  vines  become  older.  The  vines  are  larger  when  taken 
from  the  nursery,  thus  increasing  cost  of  removal.  There  is  little 
if  any  gain  from  growth  over  bench  grafts  when  vineyard  planted. 
Finally,  the  method  requires  a  year  longer,  and  is  more  expensive. 
276.  Grafting  resistant  grape  stocks. — F.  Gillet  obtained  best 


FIG.    177— GRAFTING 
CONIFERS 

a,  stock,  b,  cion  in  English 
"cleft"  graft,  b,  English  method 
for  cypress,  juniper,  etc. 


STOCK  AND  CION  HANDLING  215 

results  with  riparia  stocks.  One  and  two-year  rooted  cuttings  were 
used  in  preference  to  plain  cuttings,  because  of  a  gain  of  one  year 
and  because  a  larger  per  cent  will  grow.  In  field  practice  he  used 
rooted  cuttings  just  grafted  and  rooted  resistant  stock  in  alternate 
rows.  While  he  secured  85  to  90  per  cent  of  the  former,  only  60 
per  cent  of  the  latter  grew,  and  these  produced  very  few  grapes  the 
year  set  out ;  the  former  gave  eight  to  eleven  pounds  a  plant.  Mr. 
Gillett  considers  bench  grafting  resistant  vines  the  best,  cheapest 
and  quickest  way  to  reconstruct  a  vineyard  or  start  a  new  one. 

277.  Influence  of  grape  stock  on  crop.— L.  Ravaz,  a  French  in- 
vestigator, reports  28  years'  consecutive  yields  of  two  varieties  of 
European  grapes  grafted  on  various  American  stocks.  Though 
much  decadence  is  noted  in  the  vines  grafted  on  certain  stocks,  the 
decline  in  yield  and  vigor  is  attributed  to  such  causes  as  variation 
in  resistance  to  phylloxera  (280),  unseasonable  weather,  lack  of 
adaptation  to  soil,  etc.,  rather  than  to  influence  of  grafting  and  old 
age.  The  general  deduction  is  that  under  proper  conditions  grafted 
vines  do  not  deteriorate  with  age  more  than  do  ungrafted  ones. 

273.  Grafting  green  grape  vines.— In  Rumania  the  tongue  graft 
has  been  successful  with  green  wood  not  less  than  one-fourth  inch 
diameter  at  the  point  grafted,  and  the  wood  of  both  stock  and 
cion  hard  enough  to  be  with  difficulty  compressed  between  thumb  and 
finger.  The  usual  precautions  of  mature  wood  grafting  must  be 
observed.  After  union  the  grafts  may  be  handled  like  cuttings,  or 
roots  may  be  started  by  layering  on  the  stocks  below  the  grafts. 
The  advantages  claimed  are :  The  method  simplifies  the  operations 
by  obviating  stratification  of  both  stocks  and  cions ;  2,  it  is  cheaper 
and  a  larger  percentage  of  grafts  succeed ;  3,  the  chance  element 
is  reduced  to  a  minimum ;  4,  it  seems  to  promise  greater  success 
with  varieties  difficult  to  unite  when  mature. 

279.  Seedling  vines  as  cions.— Trabut  suggests  that  new  varieties 
of  grapes  may  be  quickly  brought  into  fruit  by  grafting  the  seed- 
lings on  green   shoots  of  established  vines.     He  has  secured  suc- 
cessful results  by  the  following  method :     In  early  June  the  seed- 
lings which  had  only  their  cotyledons,  were   cut  as  for  ordinary 
cleft  grafting  and  inserted  in  the  tips  of  green  shoots  whose  ends 
were  wrapped  with  small  paraffined  bands  secured  with  raffia.     The 
completed  grafts  were  then  covered  with  paraffined  paper  bags  to 
preserve  humidity.     In  about  two  weeks  the  parts  united  and  the 
cions  grew  vigorously.     By  October  the  unions  were  almost  invisible 
and  the  canes  often  10  feet  long. 

280.  Phylloxera,  a  plant  louse  which  in  its  nymph  stage 
feeds  on  roots  of  grapes,  and  forms  galls  on  the  leaves, 
the  latter  being  the  most  conspicuous  sign  of  infestation. 
The  insect  does  little  appreciable  damage  to  American 
species  of  grapes,  hence  these  are  used  as  stocks  for 
European  varieties,  which  are  so  seriously  attacked  that, 
except  in  California  where  the  insect  was  unknown  until 


2l6 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


recently,  all  attempts  to  grow  European  grapes  in 
America  during  more  than  200  years  resulted  in  failure. 
When  American  vines  were  taken  to  Europe,  the  insect 
practically  ruined  the  grape  industry,  as  it  has  since 
threatened  to  do  in  California.  American  grape  stocks 
seem  to  be  the  only  salvation.  • 

281.  Boot-grafted  vs.  budded  trees.— For  many  years  fruit 
growers  and  nurserymen  have  discussed  the  relative  advantages  and 

disadvantages  of  whole  root, 
vs.  piece  root  vs.  budded 
trees,  largely  without  experi- 
mental evidence.  Arguments 
have  mostly  been  generalized 
statements,  only  too  often 
warped  by  individual  preju- 
dice or  pocketbook.  Before 
summarizing-  the  experiments 
recently  published,  some  lead- 
ing opinions  should  be  cited 
and  methods  outlined  so  the 
reader  may  choose  what  ap- 
peals to  him.  The  following 
points  must  be  borne  in  mind. 
Nursery  budding  upon 
spring-set  stocks  is  done 
during  summer,  but  no 
growth  occurs  till  the  follow- 

A,  effect  on  resistant  stock  of  allowing  ing  Season  (341).  The  Stocks 
cion  to  take  root;  a,  resistant  stock  small  be-  Kpfnrp  hpintr  nlantprl  in 
cause  cion  has  rooted  at  c;  B,  vine  in  which  ,  being  planted  in 

cion  has  not  been  allowed  to  root.  Note  the  nursery  are  trimmed 
smooth  union  at  b  in  each  case.  for  obvious  reasons.  In 

whole-root       grafting       the 

cions  are  crown  set  and  roots  similarly  trimmed.  In  piece-root  graft- 
ing several  bits  of  root  are  used,  the  top  piece  with  a  crown,  the  other 
pieces  without  any.  These  latter  are,  of  course,  smaller.  Thus  piece- 
root  grafting  creates  a  problem  of  its  own  because  of  the  varying 
sizes  and  vigor  of  the  pieces.  Piece-root  grafting  may  therefore  be 
said  to  be  unfairly  pitted  against  both  budding  and  whole-root  graft- 
ing, which  under  equal  conditions  are  equally  valuable  methods  of 
propagation. 

Differences  of  growth  characteristic  of  each  method  result  from 
differences  of  stock  trimming,  not  methods  of  propagation.  Even 
casual  observation  will  show  differences  in  root  development 
between  budded  and  root-grafted  trees,  the  latter  being  more  hori- 
zontal, prolonged  and  shallower  on  one  side  of  the  tree  than  the 


FIG.    178— GRAFTED   GRAPES 


STOCK    AND    CION    HANDLING 


217 


former,  when  dug  from  the  nursery  row — all  this  apart  from 
differences  characteristic  of  variety.  Such  differences  are  due  to 
differences  in  stock  cutting.  Doubtless  if  stocks  were  cut  alike  for 
both  budding  and  root  grafting  development  would  be  closely 
similar;  for  when  short  pieces  of  root  with  few  lateral  branches 
are  used  they  must  grow  differently  from  long  roots  with  numerous 
branches.  In  strong  stocks  where  only  the  tips  are  cut  off  and  bud- 
ding performed  root  development  is  largely  if  not  wholly  lateral, 
whereas  when  small  pieces  are  used  growth  is  mainly  downward. 
Hence  the  theoretical  conclusion  that  at  a  given  nursery  age, 
whole-rooted  trees  have  naturally  and  necessarily  longer  and 
stronger  roots  than  those  grown  from  piece  roots. 

When  root  pieces  are  very  small  the  resulting  trees  will  be  small 
at  the  end  of  the  first  growing  season.  Hence  nurserymen  often 
cut  back  the  tops  so  as  to  secure  stout,  straight  bodies  which  show  no 
trace  of  the  growth  ring  between  seasons,  and  which  do  not  branch 
top  low  or  send  up  a  crooked  leader  from  a  lateral  bud,  due  to  the 
winterkilling  of  the  terminal  one.  If  the  trees  are  sold  as  two 
years  old  there  can  be  no  objection  to  this  practice,  but  if  the  age 
is  reckoned  from  the  cut,  an  injustice  is  almost  surely  done  the 
fruit  grower,  because  greater  quantities  of  roots  are  removed  at 
digging  time  than  would  be  the  case  with  true  one-year  trees.  The 
first  season's  growth  should  always  be  high  enough  to  form  a  good 
tree  body  of  the  right  height,  whether  or  not  the  fruit  grower  is  a 
believer  in  low  or  high-headed  trees. 

Budded  trees  of  the  same  age  as  root-grafted  ones  grown  in  the 
same  field  usually  average  larger,  the  difference  diminishing  in  pro- 
portion as  the  length  of  the  root  stock  p'.ece  increases.  Similarly 
their  root  systems  go  deeper  and  show  more  symmetry,  but  these 
characteristics  also  lessen  as  the  root  stocks  lengthen. 

It  must  not  be  concluded  from  the  discussion  so  far  presented 
that  budded  trees  are  necessarily  superior  to  root-grafted  ones, 
though  it  is  probably  a  fact  that  "large  numbers  of  trees  produced 


FIG.    179— TWO  STYLES  OF   CROWN  GRAFTING 

A,  slot  of  bark  removed  for  cions  a,  b;  B,  cions  fitted  in  place;  C,  completed 
graft;  D,  slot  of  wood  and  bark  removed;  c,  cion  cut  to  triangular  wedge  to  fit 
slot  in  stock;  E,  stock  and  cion  fitted;  F,  completed  graft;  G,  slot  making  or 
"inlaying"  tool. 


218 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


from  small,  short  and  weak  stock  pieces  are  decidedly  indifferent 
and  even  distinctly  poor.  The  point  is  that  the  two  methods  form 
trees  who,se  roots  at  least  are  different  in  appearance  and  develop- 
ment. Opinion  seems  to  be  general  among  fruit  growers  and 
nurserymen  that  budded  trees  root  more  deeply  than  do  root- 
grafted  ones  and  make  longer-lived  trees  when  transplanted  to 
the  orchard.  It  is  therefore  concluded  that  more  depends  upon  the 
handling  of  stocks  at  the  time  of  performing  the  operations  than 
upon  the  method  per  se.  In  the  northwestern  states  where  trees 
on  their  own  roots  are  preferred,  piece-root  grafting  is  not  only 

more  economical  of  stocks, 
but  has  the  merit  that  the 
cions  soon  take  root  in  the 
orchard,  and  the  trees  be- 
come "own-rooted"  (242).  In 
other  sections  budded  stock  is 
perhaps  better  than  root- 
grafted  trees  of  the  same 
age  and  grown  under  the 
same  conditions ;  at  least  as 
dug  in  the  nursery.  Neverthe- 
less as  good  trees  can  be 
grown  by  the  grafting  meth- 
od. As  to  results  in  the  or- 
chard the  following  para- 
graphs will  be  interesting. 

282.  Whole  vs.  piece  root 
vs.  buds  in  apple  propaga- 
tion.—During  the  past  de- 


FIG. 


180— TRENCHER     AND     ROW 
MARKER 


Used    to    mark    rows    for    nursery    stock 
planting. 


cade  or  two  work  has  been 
done  at  experiment  stations 
in  Pennsylvania,  Oregon, 
Kansas  and  Alabama,  to 
determine  the  relative  value 

of  whole  and  piece  roots  and  budding.  After  10  or 
more  years  reports  show  that  differences  must  be  measured  by 
decimal  fractions  to  be  discovered  at  all.  In  Pennsylvania  after  a 
decade  of  work,  according  to  J.  P.  Stewart,  trees  propagated  on 
top-piece  roots  are  slightly  in  the  lead  in  all  respects,  with  those  on 
whole  roots  second.  In  Alabama,  trees  on  bottom  pieces  of  stock 
roots  show  a  slight  superiority  at  the  close  of  the  second  season, 
with  those  on  top  pieces  second,  and  whole  roots  third.  In  Oregon, 
trees  on  whole  roots  were  slightly  ahead  at  the  close  of  the  fourth 
season,  in  the  single  variety  remaining  at  that  time,  with  those  on 
top-pieces  again  second. 

In  Kansas  64  trees  grafted  on  whole  roots  averaged  one-tenth 
inch  larger  in  trunk  diameter,  at  the  end  of  10  years'  orchard 
growth,  than  30  trees  budded  in  the  usual  manner  on  whole  roots. 
They  in  turn  averaged  one-fifth  inch  larger  than  102  trees,  involv- 


STOCK    AND    CION    HANDLING  219 

ing  some  additional  varieties  propagated  on  piece  roots.  No  dif- 
ferences in  growth  or  vigor  were  observable  in  the  orchard.  In 
another  Kansas  experiment  three  varieties  of  400  trees  each,  on 
whole  roots,  were  compared  by  Judge  Wellhouse  with  400  of  the 
same  varieties  on  two-inch  piece  roots.  In  the  latter  case,  the  young 
trees  had  developed  considerable  numbers  of  roots  directly  from 
the  cions,  thus  making  the  trees  largely  own  rooted,  while  no  cion 
roots  were  developed  on  whole-rooted  trees.  After  19  years  in  the 
orchard,  the  only  difference  observed  was  in  the  greater  number  of 
sprouts  from  the  whole-rooted  trees. 

From  all  these  data  it  is  obvious  that  none  of  the  present  forms 
of  propagation  has  any  material  advantage  over  any  other.  It 
may  be  of  distinct  advantage  to  get  rid  of  the  seedling  root  alto- 
gether, either  by  using  the  shortest  roots  practicable  and  then  cut- 
ting them  off  during  transplanting  after  roots  have  developed  above, 
or  possibly  by  a  direct  rooting  of  the  cions. 


8    9    \0    U 


FIG.    181— GAUGE   FOR    CUTTING    GRAPE   STOCKS 

This  insures  accuracy  as  to  length.  The  base  of  the  cion  is  placed  against 
the  adjustable  crosspiece  and  the  cutting  moved  back  a:  d  for.h  till  a  bud  comes 
just  to  the  right  of  the  guide  line  when  it  is  cut  off  flush  with  the  edge  of  the 
board.  Thus  1%-inch  internode  is  secured  above  the  top  with  only  \Y2  inches 
maximum  variation  in  total  length. 

Elimination  of  seedling  roots  would  at  least  obviate  the  numerous 
ill  effects  of  poor  unions.  It  would  also  reduce  the  opportunity 
for  crown-gall  infections,  eliminate  the  possibility  of  harmful  in- 
fluence of  variable  seedling  stocks  upon  cions,  and  make  it  possible 
to  develop  definite  and  standaid  root-systems,  with  which  injuries 
from  root  aphis  and  kindred  difficulties  might  well  be  greatly  re- 
duced or  entirely  eliminated.  This  important  array  of  advantages, 
all  of  them  practical,  is  by  no  means  impossible  of  attainment. 

283.  Selection  of  cions  is  of  prime  importance  in  graft- 
ing. None  but  thoroughly  mature  wood,  cut  while  the 
buds  are  fully  dormant,  should  ever  be  used.  Preferably 
it  should  be  one  year  old,  though  sometimes  two-year  and 
even  three-year  wood  gives  good  results.  Pithy  and  soft 
wood  is  worthless  for  grafting.  Cions  may  be  packed  in 
damp  moss  or  sand  and  stored  in  a  cool  cellar  until  buds 


22O  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

on  trees  exposed  to  the  weather  begin  to  break.  If  the 
moss  is  too  wet  the  cions  will  become  water  soaked  and 
worthless.  When  cutting  cions  from  cion  sticks  the  low- 
est few  inches  should  be  discarded,  because  the  buds  are 
inferior  and  may  not  start  at  all.  The  tips  are  often  im- 
mature and  should  also  be  discarded. 

284.  Shipping  cions  long  distances.— The  following  method  of 
shipping  mango  cions  from  Ceylon,  India,  to  Washington,  D.  C., 
recommends  itself  to  shippers  of  other  cions.  The  cut  ends  of  the 
cions  were  covered  with  collodion,  the  bud  sticks  dipped  in  clay 
mud,  packed  with  a  small  amount  of  moist  coir  (refuse  cocoanut 
fiber)  and  forwarded  in  cylindrical  tin  tubes. 


CHAPTER  XV 
GRAFTING  WAXES,  WOUND  DRESSINGS,  ETC. 

285.  Grafting  wax. — The  great  majority  of  the  many 
recipes  for  grafting  wax  vary  only  in  the  proportions  of 
the  three  ingredients,  resin,  beeswax  and  hard  cake  beef 
tallow  or  linseed  oil,  sometimes  used  instead  of  tallow. 
These  variations  are  largely  due  to  personal  preference, 
though  in  some  cases  the  consistency  of  the  finished  wax 
is  thus  purposely  varied.  For  soft  waxes  the  proportion 


FIG.  182— NURSERY  TREE  PESTS 
1.  Hairy  root  and  crown  gall.     2.  Woolly  aphis. 

of  tallow  should  be  increased;  for  tough  ones,  that  of 
beeswax.  Thus  any  formula  may  be  varied  to  secure 
wax  for  any  kind  or  character  of  use  indoors  or  out. 

As  a  rule,  liquid  waxes  are  less  popular  in  America  than 
in  Europe,  where  also  pitch  waxes  and  grafting  clay  (fresh 
cow  manure  free  from  straw,  three  parts ;  clay  or  clay  loam, 
seven  parts  and  cow  hair  half  a  part)  are  more  in  use  than 
here.  In  the  table  which  follows  the  first  formula  is 
probably  the  most  popular.  The  functions  of  grafting 
wax  are  to  protect  the  injured  tissues  from  decay  and. 


.f  KOFAGATION  ' 

weathering  and  to  prevent  losses  of  plant  juices  by  evap- 
oration. Hence  soft  wax  is  better  than  hard,  because  it 
may  be  fitted  more  closely  to  the  wood  and  into  chinks. 
Large  wounds  should  first  be  trimmed  of  ragged  edges, 
then  swabbed  or  sprayed  with  bordeaux  mixture  and 
finally  covered  with  wax. 

The  resin  and  beeswax  waxes  are  all  started  alike ;  the 
materials  previously  made  into  small  lumps  may  all  be 
placed  in  the  pot  together,  but  preferably  the  resin  is 
melted  over  a  very  gentle  fire  first  and  the  other  ingre- 
dients added.  Boiling  must  be  avoided.  After  stirring  to 
make  uniform,  the  melted  mixture  is  poured  into  a  tub  of 
cold  water  and  flattened  out  so  it  will  cool  evenly.  When 
cool  enough  to  handle,  it  is  kneaded  and  pulled  till  the 
color  resembles  molasses  taffy.  To  prevent  its  sticking 
to  the  skin,  the  hands  are  kept  greasy.  Should  lumps 


FIG.  183—  LARGE  TREES  BALED  FOR  SHIPMENT 


1.   wagons   are   used   for   short    hauls. 


2,    twenty-five    maple   trees    make    up   this 
rload. 


GRAFTING  WAXES,   WOUND  DRESSINGS,  ETC. 


223 


occur  (because  of  improper  handling),  it  may  be  re-melted 
and  re-worked.  Usually  the  wax  is  made  into  balls  or 
sticks  for  convenient  use.  It  will  keep  indefinitely. 
Linseed  oil  for  making  grafting  waxes  must  be  free  from 
adulterations  such  as  cottonseed  oil. 

Alcoholic  waxes  are  considered  too  soft  to  stand  the 
heat  of  American  summers.  They  melt  and  run.  For 
winter  work  for  covering  wounds  and  for  bridge  grafting, 
their  softness  is  an  advantage.  To  make  them  the  resin 
is  melted  slowly,  tallow  added  and  the  kettle  removed 
from  the  fire.  When  cooled  somewhat,  alcohol  (and  tur- 
pentine when  in  the  recipe)  is  added.  Stirring  continues 
from  the  adding  of  tallow  till  the  mixture  is  nearly  cold. 


FIG.    184— SMITH'S   IMPROVED   METHOD   OF   GRAFTING 

A,  old  and  defective  "rind"  grafting;  B,  large  branches  with  graft  in  position, 
a,  b,  other  views  of  graft;  C,  small  branches  grafted  ready  for  waxing;  D,  com- 
pleted graft;  E,  large  graft  one  year  old;  F,  small  graft  one  year  old. 


286.  Waxed  string  used  in  root  grafting  is  made  by 
placing  balls  of  No.  18  or  20  knitting  cotton  in  hot  resin 
wax,  turning  them  for  a  few  minutes,  removing  and  let- 
ting them  drain  and  cool.  Before  immersing,  the  outside 
end  of  each  ball  should  be  definitely  located  where  it  can 
readily  be  found,  else  unwinding  will  be  difficult.  This 
string  is  used  mainly  for  tying  root  grafts.  It  is  strong 
enough  to  make  a  tight  wind,  yet  weak  enough  to  break 
without  hurting  the  hands.  It  does  not  need  to  be  tied, 
since  it  readily  sticks. 


224 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


287.  Waxed  bandages  may  be  prepared  in  the  same  way 
as  waxed  string.  They  are  best  made  of  old  cotton  sheets 
or  similar  cloth  torn  in  strips  of  any  desired  width  and 
wound  in  rolls  like  tape.  For  binding  large  wounds,  as 
in  bridge  grafting,  they  are  excellent. 


POPULAR  GRAFTING  WAXES 


•3 

I 

1 

1 

1 

irpentine 

Remarks 

& 

« 

H 

JO 

< 

H 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pint 

Ounce 

Table- 

1 

3 

3 

2 

- 

- 

- 

J.   J.  Thomas's  wax 

2 

4 

2 

1 

- 

- 

- 

Cheaper  than  No.   1. 

j 

4 

2 

- 

1 

- 

- 

Increase  oil  for  softness. 

4 

6 

2 

- 

1 

- 

- 

Increase  oil  for  softness. 

5 

1 

1  ounce 

- 

- 

5 

1 

Melt     resin,     add     tallow, 

liquids  gradually.      Can   or 
bottle.     Apply   with   brush. 

6 

4 

1 

1 

- 

- 

- 

Somewhat  harder  than  No.  2 

7 

6 

1 

- 

1 

- 

- 

Brush  on  thickly  while  hot. 

8 

6 

1 

1 

- 

- 

- 

Use  warm  indoors. 

9 

4 

1 

- 

u 

- 

- 

Raw    oil.     A    hard,    warm- 

10 

4  to  5 

Ijto2 

- 

,„„ 

- 

- 

An  outdoor  wax. 

289.  Rubber  strip  in  grafting. — R.  B.  Rogers,  an  English  experi- 
menter, has  found  pure  rubber  electric  \vire  insulation  strip  use- 
ful in  grafting.     It  is  bought   as   rolls.     The  grafts  are   fitted   as 
usual,  the  strip  stretched  well  and  wound  tightly  so  as  to  cover  the 
exposed   part,   exclude  air  and  hold  the  cion   firmly   in  place.     A 
strin  four  or  five  inches  long  and  one-half  inch  wide  is  enough  for 
ordinary  grafts.     Rubber  solution  should  be  used  to  make  the  ends 
stick.     Strip  need  not  be  removed,  since  it  stretches  and  rots  with 
graft  growth.     Old  strip  quickly  spoils  in  the  sun. 

290.  Wrapping   grafts   with   cloth,    rubber,    waxed    paper,    plain 
thread,  waxed  thread  and  plain  thread  with  the  unions  waxed,  were 
experimentally  tried  by  the  government  to  determine  the  effect  on 
crown  gall.    From  the  large  amount  of  data  it  is  concluded  that 


GRAFTING  WAXES,  WOUND  DRESSINGS,   ETC. 


225 


wrapping  reduces  injury,  the  best  material  being  rubber,  then  cloth 
(which  gave  the  largest  percentage  of  smooth  healthy  trees). 
Cloth  is  also  cheaper.  The  investigators  strongly  oppose  wrapping 
with  thread  and  then  waxing. 

291.  Bass,  the  inner  bark  of  basswood,  has  until  re- 
cently  been   used  in  greenhouses  and   nurseries  to  tie 
plants,  buds  and  grafts.     Raffia  has  almost  replaced  it. 

292.  Raffia,  the  lower  epidermis  of  a 
Madagascar  palm  (Raffia  ruffia),  peeled 
in  narrow  strips  and  dried,  is  extensively 
used  in  America  and  Europe  for  tying 
vines,  flowers,  celery  and  in  graftage.  It 
is  soft,  strong  enough  for  the  purposes, 
and  not  quickly  altered  by  moisture  or 
temperature.  Because  of  its  cheapness  it 
has  displaced  bass  in  nursery  and  green- 
house practice.    Its  chief  fault  is  its  ten- 
dency to   roll   when   dry.        Moistening 
overcomes     this.       As     received     from 
abroad,  it  is  in  plaits  or  skeins.  Fig.  185 
shows  one  of  these  unraveled. 

293.  Grafts  in  moss  and  charcoal.  — R. 
C.    de     Briailles    has    simplified    grape 
bench  grafting  by  the  following  plan  : 

As  the  grafts  are  made  they  are  placed  in  a 
box  containing  a  three-inch  layer  of  damp  moss 
and  charcoal  (three  to  one)  and  covered  with 
another  layer  about  half  as  deep.  So  on  till  the  FIG.  185— 

box  is  nearly  full,  the  remaining  space  being  SKEIN  OF  RAFFIA 
filled  with  packing.  The  box  may  thus  be  ship- 
ped or  the  grafts  treated  at  once  by  being  placed  in 
a  room  warmed  to  50  or  60  degrees.  Within  24  hours  the 
buds  start  to  swell,  and  in  a  week  may  be  one-half  inch  long,  when 
the  moss  is  removed  for  inspection.  If  all  is  well,  new  packing  is 
applied  about  half  as  thick. 

If  any  grafts  are  rotting,  the  whole  are  exposed  for  24  hours 
and  then  covered.  If  too  dry,  a  thicker  layer  of  packing  is  added 
and  the  box  stood  in  water  of  the  room  temperature  till  the  packing 
is  moistened  nearly  up  to  the  callus.  The  tops  of  the  grafts  must 
not  be  wetted,  else  rotting  may  follow.  Watering  thus  once  a 
week  will  be  enough. 

In  two  or  three  weeks  the  grafts  will  have  callused  and  leaf 


226  PLANT  PROPAGATION 

growth  will  have  started.  The  plants  may  then  be  hardened  oft 
and  transplanted  in  the  field. 

Advantages  of  this  method  are  that  grafting  is  simplified,  since 
no  tying  is  needed,  the  grafts  are  placed  in  the  box  as  made  without 
unnecessary  handling,  a  development  of  vegetation  is  secured  in 
three  weeks  equal  to  that  of  two  months  by  ordinary  outdoor  prac- 
tice, a  more  perfect  union  and  callus  are  secured  and  disbudding  of 
the  stock  is  unnecessary. 

294.  Dressings  for  tree  wounds.— Fruit  growers  have  long  used 
paints,  tars,  waxes  and  other  substances  as  coverings  for  wounds 
on  trees.  The  New  York  state  station  reports  results  of  experi- 
ments with  white  lead,  white  zinc,  yellow  ocher,  coal  tar,  shellac 
and  avenarius  carbolineum.  The  summary  of  Bulletin  396  by  Howe 
is  slightly  condensed  in  this  and  the  next  paragraph.  In  all  cases 
undressed  pruning  wounds  have  healed  more  rapidly  than  those 
whose  surfaces  have  been  protected.  The  first  season  shellac 
seemed  to  exert  a  stimulating  influence  on  wounds,  but  the  second 
season  this  disappeared.  Of  all  materials  used  shellac  was  least 
injurious,  but  it  adheres  to  wounded  surfaces  poorest  of  all.  Car- 
bolineum and  ocher  caused  so  much  injury  that  neither  should  be 
used.  Coal  tar  not  only  caused  injury,  but  quickly  disappeared, 
either  .through  evaporation  or  absorption.  White  lead  and  zinc 
caused  some  injury  when  applied,  but  the  wounded  tissues  recovered 
rather  quickly,  and  at  the  end  of  the  first  year  the  injury  was  not 
very  marked;  at  the  close  of  the  second  season  it  had  nearly  dis- 
appeared. These  two  are  the  best  protective  substances  used,  and 
of  the  two  white  lead  is  the  better.  Nothing  is  to  be  gained  in 
treating  wounds  by  waiting  before  applying  the  dressings. 

The  treatment  of  peach  tree  wounds  with  any  of  the  substances 
caused  so  much  injury  that  it  may  be  said  peach  wounds  should 
never  be  treated  with  any  of  them.  This  may  be  inferred  for 
other  stone  fruit  trees.  There  is  nothing  lo  show  in  the  experiment 
that  it  is  worth  while  to  treat  wounds  large  or  small  with  any  of 
the  substances  in  common  use.  Had  there  been  a  longer  period  of 
observation,  it  might  have  been  found  that  wood  exposed  in  the 
larger  wounds  would  have  been  somewhat  saved  from  decay  which 
often  sets  in  on  exposed  wood  of  fruit  trees.  It  may  prove  to  be 
worth  while,  therefore,  to  cover  large  wounds,  in  which  case  white 
lead  is  undoubtedly  the  best  dressing  to  use. 


CHAPTER  XVI 


METHODS  OF  GRAFTING 

295.  Classification  of  graftage. — Graftage  methods  nat- 
urally fall  into  three  general  classes :     1,  Inarching,  or 
grafting  by  approach,  in  which  the  cion  is  not  severed 
from  the  parent  plant  until  after  union  is  complete ;  2, 
cion  grafting,  or  true  grafting,  in  which  a  twig  with  at 
least  one  bud  is  placed  upon  or  in  a  stock;  and  3,  bud 
grafting,  or,  to  use  its  popular  term,  budding,  in  which 
only  one  bud  is  placed  beneath  the  bark  of  the  stock  upon 
the  surface  of  the  young  wood. 

296.  Inarching,  or  grafting  by  approach   (Fig.   186), 

which  is  often  placed  in 
a  class  by  itself,  may  for 
convenience  be  treated 
here.  The  only  point 
that  distinguishes  it 
from  other  styles  in  this 
grouping  is  that  the  cion 
is  not  separated  from  the 
parent  plant  until  after 
union  is  complete.  In 
other  words,  inarching 
consists  in  making  one 
plant  unite  with  another 
while  still  growing  on 
its  own  roots. 

A  small  slice  of  stem 
of  both  stock  and  cion 
(Fig.  186,  D),  is  cut  with 
FIG.  186— INARCHING  a  sharp  knife,  and     the 

A,    stock;    B,    cion;    C,    stock    and    cion    CUt   SUrfaCCS   brought  tO- 

&£*££  °'  cuts  °n  st°ck  *nd  ci°n  gather     and  tied  firmly 


228 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


until  they  have  united.  In  outdoor  practice  waxing  and 
staking  are  usually  necessary  to  prevent  drying  and 
working  loose.  After  union  is  complete  the  base  of  the 
cion  and  the  top  of  the  stock  are  cut  away. 

While  this  is  undoubtedly  the  original  or  natural 
method  of  grafting  (since  all  grafts  in  the  forest  are 
formed  in  this  way  either  between  two  trees  or  two 
limbs  of  the  same  tree),  it  has  comparatively  limited 
application  in  business  horticulture,  because  other 
methods  are  less  cumbersome  and  more  economical  of 
time  and  space.  It  is  used,  however,  in  Europe  and  else- 
where in  the  making  of  cordons,  espaliers,  etc.  In 
orchards  where  Y-crotches  have  been  allowed  to  form  it 
is  also  useful  in  establishing  living  braces  between  the 
arms  of  the  Y.  For  ornamental  purposes  it  has  been  used 
in  the  Boboli  gardens  at  Florence,  Italy,  where  an  avenue 
100  yards  long  has  been  arched  over  by  European  oaks 


FIG.  187—  POPULAR  GRAFTING  METHODS 

1,   Bridge    or   repair   graft,   cions    at   left;    2,    cleft    graft,    A,    cions,    B,    c 
section  showing  insertion  of  cions  at  opposite  ends  of  cleft  in  stock; 
section   showing   vertical   position   of  cions;   d,  finished  graft. 


transverse 


METHODS  OF  GRAFTING  22Q 

whose  tops  have  been  united  by  modified  inarching,  the 
difference  being  that  neither  cion  below  the  union  nor 
stock  above  have  been  cut,  but  both  allowed  to  grow. 

In  the  tropics,  inarching  is  used  for  propagating  the 
mango.  Seedlings  are  grown  in  five  or  six-inch  flower 
pots  and  placed  on  stands  beneath  trees  to  furnish  cions 
and  within  easy  reach  of  branches  to  be  united,  as  already 
described.  After  union  the  potted  trees  are  grown  for  a 
time  in  the  nursery  before  being  set  in  the  orchard. 
Various  citrus  fruits  and  camelias  were  formerly  in- 
arched, but  are  now  mostly  veneer  grafted. 

Inarching  on  young  seedlings,  according  to  Oliver,  has  proved 
superior  in  simplicity,  rapidity  and  results  to  inarching  on  plants  in 
five  and  six-inch  pots.  It  has  a  wider  range  of  adaptability  than 
budding  and  requires  less  skill.  The  seedling  may  be  used  either  as 
stock  or  cion.  Nurse  plant  propagation  is  a  special  form  of  seed- 
ling inarch  in  which  the  plants  develop  a  strong  aerial  root  from 
the  base  of  the  cion  in  about  18  months  after  the  union  of  certain 
tropical  fruits  (mangosteen  on  related  species  of  Garcinia)  was 
considered  complete  and  the  stock  top  and  seedling  root  had  been 
severed.  This  root  pierces  the  ground,  after  which  both  top  and 
roots  develop  rapidly.  The  method  has  not  been  fully  tested,  but 
has  been  announced  for  other  experimenters  to  test. 

297.  Inarching. — Daniel  concludes  from  many  series  of  experi- 
ments  with  unrelated  plants    (kidney  bean   and  cocklebur,   kidney 
bean  and  castor  bean,  sunflower  and  melon,  cabbage  and  tomato, 
chrysanthemum  and  tomato,  Jerusalem  artichoke  and  black  night- 
shade,   coleus    and    acaranthus,    cineraria    and    tomato,    aster    and 
phlox,  coleus  and  tomato,  maple  and  lilac,  zinnia  and  tomato)  that 
"the  old  idea  that  only  plants  belonging  to  the  same  family  can  be 
grafted  on  each  other  does  not  apply  to  grafting  by  approach." 

The  most  perfect  grafts  in  these  experiments  were  made  between 
plants  nearest  alike  in  vigor  and  vegetation.  The  nature  of  the 
tissue  of  the  different  plants  also  played  an  important  role.  Tomato 
and  cabbage  and  artichoke  and  nightshade  gave  good  unions  on 
account  of  their  herbaceous  nature  and  rapid  growth,  while  aster 
and  phlox,  somewhat  advanced  in  growth,  and  year-old  maple 
and  lilac  united  with  difficulty  except  on  very  young  shoots. 

298.  Grafting  classified  as  to  position. — So  far  as  posi- 
tion is  concerned,  grafting  may  be  classified  as :     1,  root 
grafting,  in  which  only  a  root  is  used  as  a  stock;  2, 
crown  grafting,  in  which  cions  are  inserted  in  stocks  at 
the  collar;  3,  trunk  or  stem  grafting,  in  which  they  are 
set  in  the  tree  below  the  branches ;  and  4,  top  grafting,  in 


230  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

which  the  work  is  done  among  the  limbs.     Methods  of 
inserting  the  cions  may  vary  in  all  these  classes. 

299.  Cion  graftage  is  of  three  general  kinds :  bridge  or 
repair  grafting,  root  grafting  and  top  grafting. 

300.  Bridge  or  repair  grafting  sometimes  erroneously 
called  inarching,  is  not  properly  a  propagation  process, 
but  it  may  well  be  discussed  here,  because  it  may  be  the 
means  of  saving  valuable  trees  which  have  been  injured 
by  mice,  rabbits,  hogs,  human  carelessness  or  accident. 

Unless  the  girdle  has  cut  through  the  sap  wood  it  is  an 
error  to  say  that  bridge  grafting  is  necessary  to  establish 
connection  between  root  and  top ;  for  the  upward  current 
of  sap  passes  through  the  sap  wood  and  not  through  the 
bark.  It  is  correct,  however,  to  say  that  the  bridge  es- 
tablishes a  connection  between  top  and  root,  for  the 
downward  flow  of  elaborated  sap  is  through  the  bark 
layers.  As  soon  as  the  wound  is  discovered  the  operation 
should  be  performed.  If  the  injury  occurs  in  winter  the 
wound  should  be  protected  to  prevent  drying.  In  spring 
when  the  buds  begin  to  swell  the  grafting  should  be  done. 
The  operation  is  performed  as  follows  (Fig.  187)  : 

The  injured,  and  perhaps  dry  bark,  on  both  upper  and 
lower  edges  of  the  wound  is  pared  back  to  living  tissue. 
Several  cions  are  cut  long  enough  to  extend  a  little 
beyond  these  trimmed  edges,  and  inserted  beneath  the 
bark  both  above  and  below,  thus  making  little  "bridges" 
across  the  gap.  The  ends  of  the  cion  are  cut  obliquely, 
to  insure  fitting  of  the  cambium  layers  of  cions  and  trunk. 
It  is  often  a  help  to  bow  the  cions  outward  slightly, 
because  the  spring  thus  formed  aids  in  holding  them  in 
place.  But  these  and  other  minor  details  may  be  left  to 
individual  preference.  If  placed  an  inch  or  so  apart 
around  the  trunk,  enough  cions  should  succeed  to  save 
the  tree.  Both  wound  and  cions  should  be  completely 
covered  with  grafting  wax,  preferably  made  warm  so  as 
to  fit  into  every  chink  and  thus  exclude  air  and  water. 
In  a  few  years  the  cions  will  grow  together  and  in  time 
lose  their  identity  in  a  smooth  trunk. 


METHODS  OF  GRAFTING 


23I 


Bridge  grafting  is  a  makeshift  method  not  to  be  com- 
pared with  proper  protection  of  trunks  by  keeping 
animals  out  of  the  orchard,  by  avoiding  accumulation  of 
grass,  straw,  etc.,  in  which  mice  might  form  nests,  and  by 
using  trunk  protectors — splints,  tarred  or  building  paper, 
but  preferably  one-half-inch  galvanized  hardware  cloth 
— around  the  trunks  until  the  trees  have  developed  rough 
bark  (Fig.  146).  Such  methods  will  prevent  the  necessity 
of  bridge  grafting  except  in  cases  of  unusual  accident. 


FIG.   188— VARIOUS  STYLES  OF  GRAFTING  KNIVES 

A,  closing  blade  propagating  knife  with  bone  bark  lifter;  B,  C,  nursery  grafting 
knives,  blades  stationary;  D,  pocket  grafting  knife. 

When  the  girdles  are  narrow — say  only  one  to  three 
inches — no  bridging  may  be  necessary.  In  such  cases, 
however,  it  is  well  to  err  on  the  safe  side  by  covering  the 
wound  with  grafting  clay  (half  clay  and  fresh  cow 
manure)  and  bandaging  this  in  with  cotton  cloth,  or  by 
using  grafting  wax  as  described  above.  Often  such 
wounds  will  heal  over  in  a  single  season. 

301.  Root  grafting,  perhaps  the  most  generally  prac- 
ticed nursery  method,  is  usually  performed  by  means  of 
the  whip  or  tongue  graft,  a  method  employed  only  with 
small  stocks  generally  one  or  two  years  old.  It  is  often- 
est  done  during  winter  in  a  cool,  humid  room.  Should 
the  air  be  too  dry  or  too  warm,  the  grafting  wood  may  be 
injured  by  drying.  Never  should  the  work  be  done  near 
a  stove  or  a  radiator  for  this  reason.  When  necessary 


232  PLANT     PROPAGATION 

to  use  a  warm  room,  stocks,  cions  and  finished  grafts 

should  be  kept  covered  with  damp  rags  or  burlap. 

302.  Grafting  knives  (Fig.  188)  may  be  of  any  thin- 

bladed,  sharp-edged  style;  at  least  for  whip  graft  work. 

For  herbaceous  and  other  delicate  grafting  a  budding 

knife  will  answer.     It  is  too  light  for  most  other  methods. 

The  knives  popular  in  nursery  practice  have  fixed  wooden 

blades  and  cost  about  $2.50  a  dozen. 

303.  Whole-root  grafts.  - 
When  roots  of  seedling  trees 
are  used  for  grafting,  just  as 
they  come  from  the  soil,  except 
perhaps  for  trimming  and  slight 
shortening,  the  resulting  trees 
are  said  to  be  "whole-root 
grafts."  To  make  such  trees  the 

FIG.     189 — TONGUE    GRAFTING  r,     •          t  j       ,     ,, 

graft  is  placed  at  the  crown,  so 

How   to   hold  knife.  °  r  »       • 

the  term    root  graft      is     erro- 
neously  used,   the   proper  term 

being  "crown  graft."  The  roots  are  by  no  means 
"whole";  first,  because  a  good  deal  has  unavoidably  been 
left  in  the  ground  when  the  seedling  was  dug,  and  second, 
because  the  roots  must  be  shortened  so  the  finished  graft 
will  not  exceed  nine  inches  and  thus  be  too  long  for  best 
handling  in  the  nursery.  The  seedling  roots  are  either 
single  tap-roots  four  to  six  inches  long,  or  shorter  where 
several  branches  occur  near  the  crown.  Usually  the  lat- 
eral roots  are  cut  off  close  to  the  main  root,  otherwise  the 
grafts  are  difficult  to  make  and  to  handle  both  in  bundling 
and  in  planting. 

304.  Piece-root  grafts  are  made  from  cions  six  or  seven 
inches  long  and  bits  of  root  only  three  or  two  inches  long. 
First  grade,  or  number  one,  apple  seedlings  often  make 
three  and  sometimes  four  pieces,  though  the  average  would 
probably  be  not  more  than  250  piece  stocks  to  the  100 
roots  as  bought.  Number  two  seedlings  will  rarely  reach 
150  pieces  to  the  100  roots.  When  stock  is  costly  or 


METHODS  OF  GRAFTING  233 

scarce  nurserymen  sometimes  lengthen  the  cion  and 
shorten  the  roots  even  to  \l/2  inches.  One  of  the  so- 
called  advantages  thus  gained  is  that  the  cions  develop 
roots  after  the  grafts  have  been  planted.  The  chief  ef- 
fect, then,  of  the  root  piece  is  to  act  as  a  nurse  until  the 
cion  is  able  through  its  own  roots  to  care  for  itself. 

Short  pieces  have  been  specially  popular  in  the  prairie 
states  where,  because  of  severe  winters,  roots  as  well  as 
tops  must  be  hardy.  The  practice  there  has  been  com- 
mon to  make  cions  8  to  12  inches  long,  to  use  a  very 
short  root  piece  and  to  plant  as  deep  as  the  top  bud.  By 


FIG.    190— STUDENTS    PLANTING     ROOT    GRAFTS 
Ten  thousand  to  thirty  thousand  made  annually  at  Pennsylvania  State  College. 

the  time  the  tree  is  dug  the  nurse  root  will  have  fallen 
off  or  may  be  cut  away.  Thus  trees  are  secured  on  their 
own  roots  and  are  considered  superior  to  those  in  which 
the  seedling  roots  are  of  unknown  hardiness.  Some 
varieties  of  apples  readily  take  root  from  cuttings,  but 
root  grafting  is  favored,  because  there  is  less  trouble 
from  having  to  operate  several  methods  often  at  busy 
times  of  the  year. 

305.  Making  root  grafts. — The  whip  or  tongue  method 


234  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

is  almost  universally  employed  in  the  making  of  root 
grafts.  A  long  oblique  cut  (Fig.  189)  is  made  at  the  base 
of  the  cion.  Then  a  sloping  and  very  slightly  curved 
cut  is  made  half  way  between  the  lower  end  of  this  first 
cut  and  the  center  of  the  twig.  Its  direction  is  upward 
in  the  wood  but  not  exactly  with  the  grain.  The  knife 
blade  is  forced  in  not  less  than  one  nor  more  than  one 
and  one-half  inches.  Generally  both  cuts  are  made 
before  the  cion  is  cut  from  the  cion  stick.  By  this  means 
the  length  of  cions  may  be  accurately  gauged. 

Roots  or  stocks  are  cut  in  the  same  way,  about  three 
inches  long,  except  as  noted.  The  top  piece  is  cut  at  or 
perhaps  one-half  inch  above  the  crown  or  collar. 

Stocks  and  cions  are  then  accurately  and  snugly  fitted 
together  so  the  tongues  interlock  and  with  the  cambiums 
in  contact.  It  is  well  that  the  diameters  of  stock  and  cion 
be  approximately  equal,  though  large  stocks  and  small 
cions  if  properly  fitted  will  give  good  results.  Since  it  is 
usually  impossible  to  have  both  sides  of  cion  and  stock 
come  even,  the  cambiums  on  only  one  side  need  touch 
each  other.  When  sloping  and  tongue  cuts  are  made 
properly,  stock  and  cion  will  fit  together  without  over- 
lapping ends  of  bark,  which  might  not  grow  together  and 
might  thus  present  a  point  of  infection  for  decay  or  dis- 
ease. Crown  gall  (Fig.  182)  or  root  knot,  the  chief  enemy, 
seems  unable  to  get  a  start  except  through  a  wound  of 
some  kind.  Overlapping  tongues  mean  imperfect  unions 
and  unhealed  wounds  for  one  or  more  years. 

After  adjustment,  stock  and  cion  are  bound  together 
with  knitting  cotton,  either  waxed  or  not.  Four  or  five 
turns  around  each  end  of  the  fitted  parts  are  enough.  To 
avoid  tying,  some  operators  pass  the  first  turn  or  two 
over  the  end  of  the  string  and  draw  the  other  end  through 
the  notch  between  stock  and  cion  and  snap  off  with  a 
sudden  jerk  rather  than  a  steady  pull.  Those  who  use 
waxed  thread  merely  cross  the  last  turn  or  two  over  the 
previous  turns  and  break  without  tying  or  passing 
through  the  notch.  The  least  possible  quantity  of  thread 


METHODS  OF  GRAFTING  235 

of,  say,  No.  18  or  20  size  should  be  used — just  enough  to 
keep  the  parts  in  place  until  the  grafts  are  planted.  In 
order  that  the  thread  may  decay  quickly,  it  should  not  be 
waxed.  Indeed,  some  propagators  contend  that  binding 
is  a  disadvantage  because  they  claim  that  as  the  callus 
forms  and  the  stem  expands  the  cord  cuts  the  soft  tissues 
and  thus  favors  the  entrance  of  crown  gall  and  hairy 
root  (Fig.  182).  Therefore,  they  leave  the  grafts  un- 
wrapped, but  use  extra  care  in  fitting  the  part's  together. 
306.  Graft  wrapping  machines  are  coming  into  use  in 
some  of  the  larger  nurseries  because  they  economize 
time  and  cost  and  do  work  said  to  be  superior  to  hand 
wrapping.  In  a  circular  describing  the  "Reed-Bell" 
machine  the  following  passage  (condensed)  occurs : 


FIG.  191— WHIP  GRAFTS  WITH  TOO  MUCH  CALLUS 

An  account  carefully  kept  during  several  weeks  of  a 
grafting  season  shows  the  machine-wrapped  grafts  cost, 
on  an  average,  five  cents  a  thousand  for  twine,  11  cents 
for  wrapping,  a  total  of  16  cents  a  thousand ;  a  saving  of 
34  cents  a  thousand  over  calico  wrapping.  But  what  is 
of  more  importance,  the  tension  of  the  thread  may  be 
adjusted  to  wrap  the  graft  so  tightly  that  it  may  be  taken 
by  the  root,  thrown  or  shaken  without  risk  of  loosening. 


236 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


In  many  tests,  either  root  or  cion  has  broken,  rather  than 
loosen  or  break  at  the  splice.  Hence  in  planting,  grafts 
may  be  handled  almost  like  cuttings  without  fear  of 
breakage,  resulting  in  the  saving  of  thousands  of  trees. 

307.  Root  graft  storage  is  the  same  as  storage  of  cut- 
tings (176,  177),  the  grafts  being  tied  in  bundles  of  100, 
each  bundle  being  correctly  labeled  with  the  name  of  the 
variety  before  being  placed  in  damp,  green  sawdust, 
sphagnum  or  sand  in  a  cold  but  frost-proof  room  or  cel- 
lar until  spring.  Unless  the  temperature  is  below  40 
degrees,  and  unless  well  ventilated,  there  is  danger  that 
the  grafts  may  heat,  rot  or  sprout  and  thus  be  ruined. 
During  the  several  weeks  until  planting 
time  the  wounds  callus  (Fig.  191)  and  the 
parts  grow  together  so  that  when  planted 
spongy  tissue  covers  the  points  of  contact. 
Planting  of  root  grafts  in  nurseries  is 
done  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be  worked 
in  spring,  the  soil  being  fitted  by  deep 
plowing  (preferably  the  fall  before)  and  by 
several  harrowings  before  being  marked 
out.  Three  methods  of  setting  are  in 
vogue — dibbling,  furrowing  and  planting 
with  machines.  In  each  case  the  grafts  are 
set  so  the  top  bud  of  the  cion  is  iust  above 
the  surface. 

Dibbling  (Fig.  23)  is  done"  only  in  small 
nurseries  or  where  only  a  few  grafts  are 
to  be  planted.  Besides  its  slowness  it  is  objectionable 
because  of  the  risk  of  leaving  air  spaces  around  the  lower 
ends  of  the  grafts,  thus  effectively  preventing  growth.  In 
its  practice,  holes  about  eight  inches  deep  are  made  in  the 
ground  eight  or  nine  inches  apart  with  iron  bars  or  pieces 
of  rounded  2x4  scantling  six  feet  long,  sharpened  to  long 
points  at  their  lower  ends.  In  these  holes  the  grafts  are 
placed  and  earth  pressed  against  them  full  length  with 
large  dibbles  (Fig.  192). 


NURSERY 
DIBBLES 


METHODS  OF  GRAFTING 


237 


In  the  furrow  method  (Fig.  180)  a  furrow  eight  inches 
deep  is  made  with  a  turning  plow,  the  grafts  placed 
against  the  vertical  side,  and  soil  plowed  back  against 
them.  The  work  is  finished  either  by  men  tramping  the 
earth  against  the  grafts  individually  or  by  machine  (Fig. 
193)  with  two  wheels  set  obliquely  so  as  to  press  the  soil 
downward  and  against  the  grafts  when  drawn  by  horses 
down  the  rows.  Planting  machines  (Fig.  100)  are  similar 
to  those  used  for  transplanting  cabbage,  strawberry, 
sweet  potato  and  other  truck  crops.  During  the  growing 
season  the  nursery  rows 
are  cultivated  by  weekly 
shallow  stirrings  of  the 
surface  soil  with  cultiva- 
tors and  by  hoeing  out 
weeds  among  the  grow- 
ing grafts.  At  the  end  of 
the  first  season's  growth, 
fruit  trees  should  be 
three  to  five  feet  or  even 
Waller  in  some  cases. 
Trees  of  such  heights 
are  ready  for  orchard 
planting.  Many  trees, 
however,  are  allowed  to 
grow  till  two  or  even 
more  years  old. 
308.  "Incubator"  "boxes  in 
grafting. — Success  has  been 

greatly  enhanced  by  an  "incubator  box,"  in  which  the  grafts  in  bun- 
dles or  in  layers  are  packed  with  damp  moss  and  kept  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  75  to  80  for  about  three  weeks  by  which  time  callusing  is  good 
enough  to  permit  removal.  The  grafts  (made  in  the  whip  style) 
have  their  tap-roots  shortened  to  six  inches  and  are  potted  in  six- 
inch  pots.  When  a  few  leaves  have  appeared,  the  plants  are 
hardened  off  and  placed  in  a  frame  for  the  first  year.  This  method 
has  given  about  75  per  cent  success. 

309.  Root  grafting  vs.  top  grafting.— In  West  Virginia,  King 
apples  top-worked  on  seedlings  were  in  fairly  good  condition  at  20 
years  old,  whereas  others  root  grafted  and  set  in  the  same  orchard 


FIG.     193— FIRMING     NEWLY     PLANTED 
GRAFTS 

Center  wheels   pack  earth   beside  the   plants 


238  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

were  dead  at  10  years.  Ten  Walldow  root-grafted  trees  were  all 
dead  but  one  limb  on  one  tree  (most  of  the  10  died  between  five 
and  10  years),  but  the  10  top-worked  were  thrifty  at  20  years.  In 
an  orchard  of  100  root-grafted  and  70  top-grafted  trees  44  per 
cent  and  7.2  per  cent,  respectively,  died. 

For  propagating  apple  varieties  with  weak  trunks,  top  grafting 
or  double  working  is  recommended,  Tolman  sweet  being  preferred 
as  a  stock  because  of  its  close,  smooth  bark,  strong,  yet  not  rapid 
growth  and  its  great  longevity.  [These  methods  are  thought  to 
aid  trees  in  resisting  disease.] 

310.  Top  grafting,  while  of  widest  application  to  es- 
tablished orchard  trees,  is  yet  of  importance  in  nursery 
practice.     To  the  author  it  seems  this  method  might  be 
more  widely  utilized  by  nurserymen  as  follows : 

311.  Top    grafting    nursery    trees.— C.    P.   Close   of   Maryland 
started  summer  apple  trees  on  Northwestern  Greening  trees.     Three 
to  six  of  the  best  placed  and  strong  limbs  were  pruned  to  stubs 
two  to  three  inches  long  and  whip  grafted.    All  other  limbs  were 
cut  off.     The  grafts  were  wound  with  waxed  cord  and  painted  with 
liquid  grafting  wax.     The  cion  tips  were  also  waxed.     The  roots 
were  pruned  back  to  three  or  four  inches  just  before  grafting  and 
setting  in  the  orchard.    About  90  per  cent  of  the  grafts  made  good 
unions.     When    one     failed    a    shoot   usually   developed   and   was 
budded.     This  method  is  believed  to  be  of  special  use  where  trees 
of  desired  varieties  cannot  be  secured  or  are  weak  growers  with 
tender  trunks.     Prof.   Close   also  suggests  that  nurserymen  might 
use  it  to   re-graft  their   surplus    strong,   healthy   trees   instead   of 
burning  them,  or  such  trees  could  be  sold  at  a  moderate  price  for 
the  fruit  grower  to  re-graft. 

In  top  grafting,  the  stock,  cut  usually  at  or  above  the 
ground  surface,  is  either  treated  by  the  cleft  or  the  notch 
method,  one  or  more  cions  being  inserted  in  the  stub. 
Sometimes  cions  are  forced  between  bark  and  wood. 
Usually  the  cions  have  only  one  to  three  buds  and  are 
rarely  longer  than  four  inches. 

In  orchard  (less  in  nursery)  practice  unsatisfactory 
trees  are  top-worked,  also  trees  of  strong  growth  are  used 
as  bodies  for  poor  straggling  growers  and  those  that  have 
trunk  weakness  (309).  Thus  any  desired  variety  may  be 
worked  on  trees  by  the  individual  orchardist.  The 
method  is  of  practically  universal  utility,  because  nearly 
every  fruit  grower  is  sure  to  have  at  least  some  trees  that 


METHODS  OF  GRAFTING 


239 


do  not  please  him  but  which  are  too  good  to  destroy — 
seedlings,  trees  untrue  to  name,  shy  bearers,  others  in 
which  graft  or  bud  has  failed  but  a  sucker  developed, 
and  so  on.  Any  desired  number  of  varieties  may  be 
worked  upon  the  same  tree,  the  number  being  restricted 
only  by  the  available  branches  or  stocks. 

312.  Cleft  grafting,  the  method  perhaps  most  widely 
employed  outside  of  commercial  establishments,  finds  its 
chief  use  in  amateur  practice  to  work  over  seedling  and 
unsatisfactory  trees     to 
desired  varieties.  Every- 
one should  know  how  to 
perform  it,  because  there 
is  no  telling  when  it  may 
become  useful.  Though  it 
is,  in  a  sense,  not  widely 
used     commercially,     it 
commands     rather     ex- 
tended treatment  in  any 
book  on  plant  propaga- 
tion. 

The  stocks,  one-half 
to  two  inches  or  perhaps 
even  larger,  sawed 
squarely  across  with  a 
sharp,  fine-toothed  saw 
and  made  about  six 
inches  long,  are  split  ll/2 
inches  deep  with  a  graft-  FIG.  i94-GRAFTiNG  AND  BUDDING  TOOL 
ing  iron  (Fig  194)  and  Reading  from  the  Ieftl  CIeft  graftin£ 

then    Wedged   apart   Until    iron;   shears;    grafting  knife;   pruning  knife; 
,  .  r,,  cleft-grafting  mallet;  in  center  below,  budding 

the     ClOnS,     Usually     COn-    knife;    string    cutting   knife. 

taining  three  buds,  and 

cut  wedge  shaped  below  are  adjusted  with  a  slight  out- 
ward slant,  one  at  each  side  of  the  slit.  The  wedge  is 
then  gently  removed  so  as  not  to  displace  the  cions,  and 
all  the  wounded  surfaces  thoroughly  waxed  over.  The 


240 


PLANT     PROPAGATION 


advantage  of  having  two  cions  is  that  the  healing  will  be 
quicker.  Should  both  grow,  the  weaker  or  poorer  placed 
should  be  cut  off  cleanly  the  following  spring. 

In  making  cions  the  lowest  bud  should  be  just  above, 
almost  between,  the  cuts  that  form  the  wedge.  When 
placed  in  the  stock  this  bud  should  point  outward,  and 
when  the  wax  is  applied  should  be  covered  completely. 
As  the  sprout  grows  it  will  push  through  the  wax. 

For  outdoor  grafting  of  this  kind,  cion  wood,  always  of 


FIG.    195— SIDE   AND   TERMINAL   GRAFTS 

A,   side   graft   of   herbaceous .  plant   complete;    a,   cion;    b,   stock   enlarged;    B, 
terminal  graft  complete;  c,  cion;  d  stock. 

only  one  season's  growth,  should  be  cut  while  the  trees 
are  fully  dormant  and  stored  in  an  ice  house  or  in  some 
other  cold  place  to  keep  the  buds  from  swelling.  The 
operation  is  best  performed  just  when  the  trees  are  break- 
ing into  leaf.  If  the  twigs  are  long  and  the  lower  buds 
poorly  developed,  these  should  be  discarded  Because 
cleft  grafting  is  a  rigorous  operation,  preference,  wher- 
ever possible,  should  be  given  to  stocks  of  one-half  to  one 


METHODS  OF  GRAFTING  24! 

inch,  so  the  healing  may  be  completed  in  a  single  season, 
thus  lessening  the  chances  of  decay.  In  such  cases  only 
one  cion  is  needed.  When  large  stocks  are  used  it  may 
be  necessary  to  keep  the  cleft  wedged  apart  so  as  not  to 
squeeze  the  cion  too  much.  Such  wedges  should  be 
placed  in  the  heart  wood  and  cut  off  even  with  the  face 
of  the  stub. 

313.  Grafting  irons  are  of  two  general  forms ;  one  sug- 
gesting a  sickle  with  its  point  reversed  and  thickened  to 
form  a  four  or  five-inch  wedge,  the 
other  a  straight  shank  with  blade  on 
one  side  and  the  wide  wedge  at  the 
end  on  the  other.  (Fig.  194.)  The 
former,  usually  homemade,  is  more 
of  a  splitting  tool,  useful  for  straight- 
grained  wood;  the  latter,  sold  by 
nursery  and  seed  houses,  rather  a 
cutting  tool  suitable  for  gnarly 

Stocks.  FIG.    196— NEWLY 

,  ,    .        SPROUTED  CLEFT  GRAFT 

In  waxing,  time  may  be  saved  in  Note  upward  trend  of  twigs. 
cold  weather  if  the  wax  is  kept  warm 

and  soft  in  hot  water.  A  cabinetmaker's  glue 
pot  is  very  handy  for  liquid  waxes  to  be  brushed 
on  wounds.  In  weather  warm  enough  to  keep 
wax  fairly  soft,  application  with  the  hands  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred, since  every  crevice  can  thus  be  surely  filled.  To 
prevent  wax  from  sticking  to  the  skin  grease  the  hands 
well. 

Solid  wax  is  best  applied  when  worked  out  by  the 
hands  into  ribbons  of,  say,  one-eighth  inch  thick.  Start- 
ing at  the  top  of  the  cion,  the  ribbon  is  pressed  against 
and  into  the  crack  down  the  side  of  the  stub,  less  being 
needed  below  than  above.  Next  a  ribbon  is  wound 
around  the  point  where  stock  and  cion  join  and  pressed 
down  well.  The  second  cion  is  similarly  treated. 
Finally  the  parts  of  the  stub  still  exposed  are  covered 
with  a  spoon-shaped  piece  of  wax,  care  being  taken  to 


242  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

use  plenty  to  fill  the  top  one-fourth  inch  or  more  of  the 
cleft,  and  to  cover  the  edges  all  around.  By  this  method 
much  better  covering,  to  say  nothing  of  time  saving,  can 
be  secured  than  by  dabbing  and  patting  the  wax  in  place. 
Many  grafters  also  put  little  bits  of  wax  on  the  upper 
ends  of  cions  if  these  have  been  cut  off. 

Cleft  grafting  is  the  method  most  used  in  top  working 
large  trees,  a  line  of  work  practiced  by  many  men  who 
charge  a  fixed  rate,  usually  two  or  three  cents  a  stub  for 
the  number  of  successes  toward  the  close  of  summer. 
When  the  size,  condition  and  shape  of  trees  are  favorable 
and  when  extensive  preliminary  pruning  is  not  necessary, 
an  expert  grafter  can  make  and  wax  an  average  of 
perhaps  600  stubs  in  a  10-hour  day. 

In  top  working  an  old  tree,  keen  judgment  is  needed  to 
re-shape  the  top.  It  is  popular  opinion  that  never  should 
more  than  a  third  of  the  top  be  removed  and  grafted  in 
any  one  year ;  a  fourth  or  a  fifth  would  be  better.  Always 
the  general  outline  of  old  trees  should  be  followed  and 
branches  smaller  than  two  inches  used  when  possible, 
since  the  cions  succeed  and  wounds  heal  best  in  such 
cases. 

It  is  usually  advisable  to  cut  the  principal  stubs  at  rel- 
atively equal  distances  from  the  axis  of  the  tree  and  then 
select  minor  side  limbs.  In  handling  trees  with  thick 
tops,  care  must  be  exercised  to  leave  sufficient  shade  to 
protect  the  bark  from  sun  scald.  Better  cut  out  all  large 
branches  that  must  be  removed  before  the  grafting  is 
begun,  because  they  are  sure  to  develop  excessively  if 
left  after  the  removal  of  the  limbs  for  grafting.  Thus 
bare  pole-like  limbs  may  be  prevented.  It  is  well  to  err 
on  the  safe  side  by  having  too  many  than  too  few  stubs, 
because  the  excess  may  be  cut  out  later.  Young  trees — 
say  two  or  three  years  old  from  planting — may  be  top 
worked  much  more  quickly,  because  a  larger  part,  in  fact 
even  the  whole  top,  may  be  removed  at  one  fell  swoop 
and  grafted. 


METHODS  OF  GRAFTING 


243 


Never  should  a  horizontal  limb  immediately  beneath 
another  one  be  grafted,  because  the  tendency  is  for  grafts 
to  grow  upward  (Fig.  196)  rather  than  outward.  Simi- 
larly, when  horizontal  or  nearly  horizontal  limbs  are  to 
be  grafted,  the  cleft  should  never  be  vertical,  always  hori- 
zontal, so  the  growths  from  the  cions  will  have  the  least 
chance  of  interfering.  This  upward  tendency  of  cion 
growth  explains  the  narrow  and  dense  tops  of  top-grafted 
trees.  Hence  also  the  necessity  for  careful  pruning  and 
training  to  open  up  the  tops  again.  Be- 
cause of  this  necessity  the  folly  of 
grafting  old  trees  only  on  large  interior 
limbs  close  to  main  trunks  is  apparent. 
Such  trees  become  pomological  ex- 
clamation points. 

While  top  grafting  is  best  performed 
when  the  buds  are  beginning  to  swell, 
on  account  of  the  rapid  healing  of 
wounds  and  the  probably  greater  suc- 
cess at  that  time,  it  is  usually  neces- 
sary to  start  two  or  four  weeks  earlier 
and  continue  as  much  later  when  many 
trees  must  be  worked  over  by  few 
hands.  Late-set  cions  usually  get  so 
poor  a  start  they  are  weak  and  cannot 
withstand  frost  the  following  winter. 

Time  may  be  saved  by  having  three 
men  work  as  a  gang,  one  to  prepare 
stubs,  a  second  to  cut  and  set  cions 
and  the  third  to  do  waxing.  The 
second,  perhaps  aided  at  first  by  the  third  man, 
makes  a  lot  of  cions  while  the  first  man  is 
getting  a  start  on  the  stubs.  The  cions  as  made 
are  dipped  in  water  and  when  placing  begins,  are 
carried  in  an  outside  breast  pocket.  The  second  man 
carries  an  18-inch  mallet  (Fig.  194)  handily  slung  by  a 
cord  from  his  wrist.  With  it  one  downward  blow  on  the 


FIG.   197— LARGE 
TREE  CALIPER 


244  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

knife  makes  the  cleft,  an  upward  one  loosens  the  knife, 
a  second  down  below  drives  home  the  wedge.  The  mal- 
let is  then  dropped,  the  cions  placed,  the  wedge  removed, 
and  so  on.  The  third  man  follows  to  do  the  waxing. 

From  time  to  time  during  spring,  summer  and  fall,  the 
grafts  should  be  examined,  and  those  which  have 
loosened  the  wax  and  exposed  the  wood  should  be  re- 
waxed  to  prevent  entrance  of  decay.  This  should  be 
repeated  if  necessary  the  following  year  or  until  the 
wound  has  completely  healed.  Probably  wax  is  better 
than  any  other  wound  dressing. 

314.  Other  uses  of  cleft  grafting. — While  cleft  grafting 
is  most  used  in  working  over  trees  in  orchards,  it  has 
other   uses.     Established  grape   vines    are    often    cleft 
grafted  below  ground,  the  completed   work  not  being 
waxed,   and  often   rooted  grape   cuttings   are   similarly 
treated.     In  these  cases  the  stocks  should  have  clefts 
cut  rather  than  split  because  of  the  gnarly  wood.     Should 
the  cion  fit  too  loosely,  it  must  be  bandaged  or  tied  to 
hold  it  in  place. 

In  grafting  fleshy  plants,  such  as  cactus  (329),  cleft 
grafting  is  popular,  the  cion  being  held  in  position  by  a 
spine  or  a  pin  before  being  wound  with  bast  or  raffia. 
No  waxing  is  needed.  Peony  roots,  summer  grafted,  are 
similarly  handled,  but  bound  with  wire  because  raffia  or 
other  vegetable  tier  quickly  decays  when  buried  in  the 
ground  up  to  the  top  bud.  Dahlias  are  generally  side 
grafted,  but  sometimes  cleft  grafted. 

315.  Veneer  grafting,  from  the  standpoint  of  union  of 
stock  and  cion,  is  perhaps  the  ideal  method  of  grafting, 
because  the  parts  unite  quickly  and  evenly  and  make 
perfect  unions.     As  handled  in  America  it  resembles  the 
English  side  graft,  but  has  a  longer  stock  tongue.     Its 
chief  application  is  to  potted  plants  in  greenhouses  be- 
tween November  and  March.     Stocks  which  have  been 
grown  in  the  open  air  during  summer  are  potted  between 
late  August  and  early  October  and  placed  in  cool  houses 


METHODS  OF  GRAFTING 


245 


or  pits  prior  to  the  operation,  which  is  performed  near 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  It  is  not  necessary  to  head 
back  stocks  until  after  union  is  complete.  As  good  suc- 
cess follows  the  use  of  dormant  as  of  active  cions,  but 
plants  growing  well  must  be  plunged  in  moss  in  a  frame 


FIG.    198— PACKING    SHRUBS    AND   TREES   IN   BALE 

Top,  trees  and  shrubs  to  be  packed.  Middle,  trees  and  shrubs  placed  and 
tied.  Bottom,  finished  bale,  the  trees  and  shrubs  being  wrapped  in  moss  and 
covered  with  burlap  before  tying  and  labeling. 


246  PLANT     PROPAGATION 

and  kept  cool,  moist  but  not  very  wet,  until  the  cions  have 
united  well. 

Usually  the  resulting  plants  are  kept  in  pots  during  the 
following  summer,  though  some  few  species  may  be 
transplanted  to  nursery  rows  or  open  borders  in  spring. 
Japanese  maples,  rhododendrons  and  certain  coniferous 
plants  are  propagated  in  this  way.  This  method  has  the 
advantage  that  failures  do  not  injure  the  stocks,  which 
may  be  re-grafted  as  often  as  necessary.  Few  methods 
are  more  easily  learned  or  more  simple. 

In  preparing  the  stock,  a  cut  about  an  inch  long  is 
made  downward  just  through  the  end  and  the  piece  re- 
moved by  a  diagonal  cut  at  the  base,  thus  leaving  a  lit- 
tle notch.  In  this  notch,  and  against  the  cut  edges  of 
the  stock,  the  cion  is  made  to  fit  by  cutting  in  this  form. 
Then  cion  and  stock  are  fitted  together,  the  small  tongue 
of  bark  on  the  stock  serving  to  cap  the  base  of  the  cion 
when  in  position.  Tying  with  raffia  completes  the  work. 
Since  no  incision  is  made  in  the  wood,  waxing  is  not 
necessary,  except  out  of  doors. 

316.  Side  grafting  (Fig.  195)  has  several  modifications, 
but  in  all  the  cion  is  inserted  without  cutting  off  the  stock. 
In  one  the  stock  is  cut  as  for  shield  budding,  but  instead 
of  a  bud  a  wedge-shaped  cion  is  placed  beneath  the  bark, 
tied  and  waxed.  This  form  may  be  used  for  rather  dif- 
ficult subjects,  either  with  dormant  cions  in  spring  when 
the  leaves  have  appeared,  or  with  young  twigs  in  late 
summer  at  the  usual  shield  budding  season.  By  the 
former  plan  and  by  frequent  heading  in  of  the  stock  top 
above  the  cion,  salable  trees  of  such  subjects  as  mul- 
berries will  be  ready  in  autumn ;  by  the  latter  plan  plants 
of  ornamental  beech  will  be  salable  in  14  months. 

In  another  form  used  in  grafting  small  grape  stocks 
below  ground,  a  narrow  thin-bladed  chisel  (preferably 
with  a  bent  shank)  or  a  knife  blade  is  thrust  about  an 
inch  deep  obliquely  in  the  stock  and  the  cion,  cut  to  a 
thin  wedge  as  in  cleft  grafting,  is  thrust  into  the  incision 
until  the  cut  surfaces  are  covered  by  the  bark  of  the 


METHODS  OF  GRAFTING  247 

stock.  Tying  and  waxing  finish  the  work  in  the  open 
air;  tying  alone,  indoors.  Heading  back  the  stock  aids 
union,  since  it  throws  more  plant  food  into  the  cion. 

In  a  modification  of  the  above  plan,  used  in  root-graft- 
ing grapes  and  some  other  plants,  the  stock  instead  of  the 
cion  is  cut  wedge  shape  and  is  thrust  into  an  oblique  cut 
made  upward  in  the  cion.. 

317.  Crown  grafting  or  inlaying  (Fig.  179)  is  a  form  of 
grafting  in  which  a  small  sliver  of  wood  is  cut  out  of 
the  stock  and  a  cion  similarly  cut  is  fitted  in  its  place. 
It  has  special  value  for  grafting  grapes  and  other  "curly," 
grained  woods.     Since  the  necessary  tying  is  slow,  cleft 
grafting    (312)     is    better    for    straight-grained    stocks. 
Another  objection  to  inlaying  is  that  the  growing  cions 
must  be  tied  to  prevent  being  broken  off  by  wind.     When 
this  care  is  taken  the  method  results  in  good  unions  and 
excellent  growth. 

In  the  most  popular  form  the  stock,  being  cut  off 
square  as  in  cleft  grafting,  has  one  or  more  V-shaped 
grooves,  large  above  and  tapering  below,  and  made  down- 
ward, either  with  a  knife  or  an  inlaying  tool  (Fig.  179,  G). 
In  these  grooves  the  cions  cut  to  fit  are  placed  and  tied, 
and,  if  in  the  open  air,  are  waxed.  The  tier  should  be 
weak  and  perishable,  so  it  will  decay  and  break  before 
danger  of  strangling  the  cion  might,  occur.  Raffia,  bast 
and  No.  18  or  No.  20  knitting  cotton  are  all  good. 
Winding  should  be  very  tight. 

318.  Modified  crown  grafting. — Cions  bearing  two  buds  are  cut 
beginning  just  below  the  lower  bud  and  on  the  opposite  side.    The 
stock   is   prepared   as   for   splice  grafting,   the   cion  being  inserted 
under  the  bark  and  at  the  tip  of  the  stock.     The  union  is  said  to 
form  very  rapidly  and  without  enlargement. 

319.  Notch  grafting  (Fig.  179D)  is  a  modification  of  in- 
laying, in  which  the  stock,  though  cut  off  as  in  cleft  graft- 
ing, is  not  split,  and  in  which  the  wood  may  or  may  not 
be  cut  to  receive  the  cion.     It  is  best  used  in  spring  when 
the  bark  separates  readily  from  the  wood.     In  one  case  a 
saw   with   wide-set   teeth   is   used   obliquely   downward 
to  make  one  or  more  slots  in  the  stock,  and  cions  cut  on 


248  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

two  sides  to  fit  snugly  are  inserted  and  waxed.  For  best 
results  the  cut  surfaces  of  cion  should  not  be 
parallel,  but  slightly  wider  apart  outside  than  in- 
side, so  the  cions  may  be  pressed  in  place  both  from 
above  and  from  the  side  toward  the  center  of  the  stock. 
This  form  of  notch  grafting  has  the  advantage  of  making 
the  cions  about  as  firm  as  in  cleft  grafting  without 
wounding  the  stock  nearly  so  seriously. 

Two  other  forms  (Fig.  179,  A),  often  called  bark  graft- 
ing, start  the  same  way,  but  instead  of  notching  the  wood, 
the  cion,  in  one  case  cut  to  a  thin  wedge,  is  thrust  between 
bark  and  wood,  tied  and  waxed;  in  the  other,  narrow 
strips  of  bark  about  one  inch  long  are  removed  and  the 
cions,  cut  with  a  shoulder  opposite  a  well-developed  bud, 
are  set  in  the  notches,  tied  and  waxed.  In  t}dng  it  is  well 
to  use  one-half-inch  tape  soaked  in  grafting  wax  and  to 
bind  tightly,  to  prevent  injury  by  accident.  Both  stub 
and  upper  tips  of  cions  should  be  covered  with  wax. 

320.  Smith's  improved  graft,  an  English  method. — Ac- 
cording to  a  writer  in  the  Gardeners'    Chronicle,  cions  of 
one  or  two-year  wood  of  fruit  trees  are  given  a  three- 
fold grip  on  the  stocks  (one-half  to  one  and  one-half  inch 
in  diameter),  which  becomes  covered  the  first  year.     Fig. 
184  shows  the  defects  of  the  old  mode  of  "rind"  graft- 
ing; Figs.  184,  B,  C,  show  the  preparation  of  the  stocks — 
one  small,  the  other  large.  In  Fig.  184,  D  is  the  finished 
graft  waxed,  and  in  Figs.  184,  E,  F,  the  effect  of  one  year's 
growth.  This  plan  offers  more  than  ordinary  resistance  to 
wind. 

321.  Splice    grafting    the    easiest    method    of    all,    is 
done  by    making  an  oblique  cut  across  both  stock  and 
cion,  as  if  making  the  first  cut  in  whip  grafting,  but  not 
forming  a  tongue  in  either  part.     The  two  pieces,  being  of 
approximately   equal   diameter,   are   placed  together  so 
their  cut  surfaces  match  and  are  then  tied  and  waxed. 
The  method  finds  its  most  useful  application  to  small 
tender  shoots  which  cannot  be  safely  split. 


METHODS  OF  GRAFTING 


249 


322.  Cutting-grafting,  as  its  name  implies,  is  a  union 
of  a  graft  with  a  cutting,  a  special  case  of  which  is  root 
grafting  already  described  (305).     Plants  hard  to  propa- 
gate by  cuttings  are  often  grafted  upon  cuttings  of  other 
varieties  or  related  species  which  root  readily.     When 
the  work  is  done  outdoors  in  spring  the  grafts  are  usually 
ready  to  have  the  stocks  removed  by  fall,  the  cuttings 
having  rooted ;  and  when  done  in  fall  under  glass  they  are 
ready  by  spring.     The  nurse  plant  may  be  removed  little 
by  little  or  all  at  once,  according  to 

the  case  in  hand.  A  modification 
of  the  method  is  to  let  the  cion  ex- 
tend downward  into  wet  moss  or  a 
bottle  of  water  (Fig.  199*).  This  is 
used  where  stock  and  cion  are  more 
or  less  uncongenial  or  are  slow  to 
unite.  Various  birches,  magnolias 
and  mulberries  are  handled  in  this 
way. 

323.  Grafting  tubes  (like  laboratory  test 
tubes),    about    5^    inches    long    and    one 
inch  wide  have  been  used  with  good  re- 
sults for  propagating  shrubs  and  trees  at 
the   Swedish   Agricultural    College.     Each 
graft-cutting  is   covered   with   a  tube,  the 
lower  end  of  which  is  pressed  into  damp 
moss.  Any  convenient  method  of  grafting 
is  used  (whip,  splice,  etc).     Grafting  wax 

was  abandoned  because  as  good  results  were  secured  without  it. 
The  plan  gave  good  results  in  sand  beds,  flower  pots  and  in  open 
air.  Among  the  subjects  which  did  well  out  of  doors  were  rose, 
maple,  alder,  birch,  beech,  fir,  gooseberry,  currant. 

324.  Herbaceous  grafting,  mainly  by  means  of  veneer, 
saddle  and  cleft  methods,  is  very  easy.     Any  plant  with 
semi-succulent  stems,  such  as  coleus,  chrysanthemum, 
geranium  and  the  shrub-like  begonias,  can  be  grafted. 
Both  stocks  and  cions  should  have  passed  the  watery 
stage  and  become  as  firm  as  for  the  making  of  cuttings. 
After  adjusting  the  two  parts  the  graft  should  be  bound 
with  raffia,  placed  in  a  propagating  frame  and  kept  in  a 


FIG.    199— BOTTLE 
GRAFTING 

Used  for  difficult  subjects. 


250 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


humid  atmosphere  for  perhaps  a  week.     Wax  is  thus  dis- 
pensed with ;  indeed,  it  is  thought  to  be  a  detriment. 

Some  propagators  bind  moss  around  the  wounds,  but 
there  is  likelihood  that  roots  will  develop  as  in  pot  layer- 
ing and  the  parts  fail  to  knit  together  unless  they  are 
first  bandaged.  It  is  possible  to  graft  shrubs  and  trees 
while  the  shoots  are  herbaceous,  but  this  plan  is  not 
popular.  Conifers  (pines  and  spruces),  and  some  de- 
ciduous trees  (walnut)  are  occasionally  saddle  or  cleft 
grafted  in  mid  to  late  spring,  bound  with  waxed  cheese- 
cloth and  shaded  with  manila  sacks. 


FIG.    200 — UNCOMMON    METHODS    OF    BUDDING 
A,  annular  or  ring;  b,  terminal;  c,  plate;  d,  H-budding;  e,  flute;  f,  prong;  g,  chip. 

Experiments  at  Cornell  University  have  shown  that  the  wood 
must  be  somewhat  hardened  to  secure  best  results.  Soft,  flabby 
shoots  are  likely  to  be  injured  in  the  operation,  and  the  union  does 
not  occur  readily.  Cleft  and  veneer  styles  were  most  satisfactory. 
In  most  cases  it  is  necessary  only  to  bind  the  parts  with  raffia. 

325.  Grafted    potatoes.— E.    Laurent,    a     Belgian     investigator, 
grafted  light  and  colored  flesh  potatoes  on  each  other  by  various 
methods,  but  after  three  years  of  experimenting   found  no  color 
from  a  violet  variety  in  the  tubers  of  the  light-fleshed  stock. 

326.  Grafting  beets  has  been   experimentally  done   to   increase 
the    seed   yield   of    desirable    varieties.     The    mother    beet    root   is 
sprouted.     When  the  off-sets  at  the  crown  are  about  three-fourths 
inch  long  they  are  removed  with  some  of  the  flesh  and  inserted  in 
new  beets  just  below  the  crown,  in  cuts  corresponding  to  the  form 
of  the  cions.     In  one  experiment  48  off-sets  were  secured  from  one 
"mother"  and  31  of  these  grew  into  first-class  plants,  each  of  which 
yielded  a  normal  amount  of  seed. 


METHODS  OF  GRAFTING  25! 

Beets  are  very  easy  to  graft,  nearly  every  graft  has  been  suc- 
cessful in  European  experiments.  The  color  boundary  line  between 
stock  and  cion  is  clearly  marked,  red  varieties  not  blending  with 
white  ones.  Grafted  beets  are  slightly  dwarfed,  as  are  also  other 
plants,  thus  supporting  Daniel's  contention  that  one  effect  of  grafting 
is  to  dwarf  growth,  another  to  retard  the  flowering  season  and  in 
some  cases  to  render  plants  more  subject  to  pest  attack.  Potatoes 
with  smooth,  green  skin  and  deep  eyes  grafted  on  those  with  thick, 
rough,  brown  skin  and  shallow  eyes  often  bore  both  kinds  of 
tubers,  sometimes  parts  of  each  kind  on  the  same  tuber. 

327.  Potato  grafted  on  tomato  experimentally  produced  no  tubers 
and  the  tops,    although  they  bloomed   freely,   bore   no   seed   balls. 
Tomato  on  potato  bore  a  fair  crop  of  apparently  normal  tomatoes 
and  a  few  tubers  which,  however,  did  not  grow  when  planted. 

328.  Eggplant  grafted. — Van  Hermann  asserts  that  the 
only  practical  way  to  grow  eggplant  during  the  rainy  sea- 
son in  Cuba  is  to  graft  it  on  Solanum  tortum,  a  wild 
species  employed  by  the  Cuba  Experiment  Station. 

329.  Cactus   grafting.— Grafting,   says    an    Iowa    experimenter, 
hastens   the   flowering   season   of    cacti,   places   trailing   species   on 
strong   stocks  at   any   desired  height  where   their  flowers  may  be 
seen    to    better   advantage.     It    also    prevents    injuries    from   over- 
watering.     Healthy    stocks    and    cions    readily    unite    when    in    the 
actively  growing  season  for  them.     The  beginning  of  this  period  is 
best.     Top    working   alone    should   be    done;    root   grafting   never, 
since  the  cion  will  itself  strike  root  if  in  contact  with  soil.     Cleft 
grafting  is  most  popular,  but  whip  grafting  may  be  used  with  better 
results   on   slender   species,    and   saddle   grafting   with   thick   ones. 
Ball  species  may  be  cut  square  across  and  the  similarly  cut  cion 
fitted  on  top.     Both  should  be  about  the  same  size.     Strings  over 
the  cion  and  under  the  pot  will  hold  the  two   in  place.     Another 
favorite  way  is  to  hollow  the  cion,  sharpen  the  stock  and  fit  the 
two.    somewhat    as    in    flute     budding.     Waxing     is    unnecessary. 
Watering  should  be  sparingly  done  for  a  few  days.     Grafting  greatly 
increases  the  number  of  flowers,  hastens  the  flowering  season  and 
often    augments   plant   vigor   by   checking   the    downward   flow   of 
food. 

330.  Mixed  graftage,  a  French  method,  differs  from  the 
ordinary  methods  in  that  a  few  shoots  are  allowed  to 
grow  permanently  upon  the  stock  but  kept  pruned  suf- 
ficiently to  prevent  their  seriously  checking  the  growth 
of  the  cion.     By  its  means  a  successful  union  of  sweet 
cherry  (Prunus  aviuni)  and  cherry  laurel  (Prunus  laur- 
ocerassus)  as  a  stock  was  readily  made.     This  is  con- 


252 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


sidered  a  difficult  one,  because  the  former  is  deciduous, 
the  latter  evergreen. 

Daniel,  the  author,  concludes  from  his  experiments 
that :  1.  Mixed  graftage  should  be  used  with  plants  pre- 
senting marked  differences,  as  between  evergreen  and 
deciduous  subjects ;  2,  the  stock  does  not  influence  the 


FIG.    201— GRAFT-PLANTING    METHODS 

A,  planting  with  dibble;  D,  dibble  pushing  soil  against  graft  f;  D,  position  of 
dibble  for  next  thrust  of  soil;  S,  loose  soil  in  bottom  of  hole;  B,  planting  in 
trenches. 

cion  as  much  as  in  ordinary  graftage ;  3,  such  character- 
istics as  may  be  attributed  to  environment  (height,  vigor, 
resistance  to  parasites,  etc.)  are  affected  less  by  the  stock 
also;  but,  4,  characteristics  peculiar  to  the  variety  of  the 
stock  (flavor,  form  of  fruit,  color  of  flowers,  etc.)  mix 
with  those  of  the  cion  much  more  readily  by  this  method 
than  by  the  ordinary  methods. 

331.  End-to-end  grafting,  a  new  and  not  fully  tested 


METHODS  OF  GRAFTING  253 

French  method,  gave  a  low  percentage  of  successes  but 
excellent  unions  in  California.  In  operating  it  stocks 
and  cions  of  equal  size  are  cut  at  slight  angles  (about  70 
degrees),  and  each  pair  fitted  together  by  a  piece  of 
stiff  galvanized  wire  pushed  into  the  pith  of  both  parts. 
Bioletti  considers  this  method  "especially  promising  for 
machine  grafting." 

In  experiments  at  the  Good  Hope  Agricultural  College,  it  was 
found  that  skillful  grafters  could  make  300  end-to-end  grafts  an 
hour,  while  100  an  hour  with  the  tongue  graft  was  quick  work. 
Students  who  had  never  grafted  before  could  make  120  an  hour, 
against  15  tongue  grafts.  In  the  field  the  two  methods  produced 
about  equal  percentages  of  vines  when  made  by  skillful  men.  Un- 
skilled men  secured  almost  as  good  results  with  end-to-end  grafts 
as  did  the  skilled  men,  while  the  tongue  grafts  proved  almost  total 
failures.  Roots  were  less  numerous  on  the  cions  of  end-to-end 
grafts,  thus  facilitating  removal.  Results  on  the  whole  favored  the 
end-to-end  method. 

332.  Grafting  green  grape  vines  has  been  successfully  practiced 
by  J.  Zawodny,  a  German  experimenter,  who  did  the  work  in  May, 
June  and  early  July,  when  the  stocks  were  in  luxuriant  growth,  by 
making  the  graft  obliquely  through  a  node. 

333.  Saddle  grafting  (Fig.  168)  is  especially  useful  for 
propagating  small  growing  shoots.     The  cion,  split  by 
an  upward  cut,  is  placed  upon  the  stock  cut  on  each  side 
to  form  a  wedge.     Tying  and  waxing  finish  the  job.     Its 
most  popular  application  is  to  cions  with  terminal  buds 
with  wood  too  soft  or  weak  to  be  easily  whip  grafted. 

334.  Adjuvant  graft. — Gouderc  of  France  contends  that  the  life 
of  grape  vines  may  be  prolonged  by  using  two  stocks  to  one  cion. 
His  experiments  show  that  companion  stocks  have  a  greater  period 
of  duration  than  either  of  the  stocks  used  alone.     By  using  a  series 
of  "adjuvant"  stocks  he  has  flowered  and  fruited  vine  cuttings  the 
first  year.     This  was  accomplished  by  grafting  a  stock  having  one 
internode  and  a  good  root  system  under  each  eye  of  the  cutting, 
which    remains    horizontal.     The    plan    is    suggested    to    overcome 
phylloxera    attacks,    which    the    author    claims    occur    even    with 
American  species. 

335.  Fruit  bud  grafting. — C.  Trehignand,  a  French  investigator, 
has  found  that  vigorous  trees  which  fail  to  produce  fruit  may  be 
grafted  with  fruit  buds  from  other  trees  in  August  or  September 
and  fruit  obtained  the  following  season. 

336.  Grafted  conifers,  especially  pines  and  firs,  are  never  as  suc- 
cessful as  seedlings,  because  they  rarely  make  a  perfect  leader  and 
symmetry  is  sacrificed.     Thuias,  biotas,  junipers,  cypresses  and  ret- 


254  PLANT     PROPAGATION 

inosporas  may  be  usefully  increased  by  grafting.  Stock  for  first 
and  second  is  American  arbor  vitae  (Thuia  occidentalis)  ;  for  the 
next  two  red  cedar  (Juniperus  virginica)  ;  for  cypress  family  use 
funereal  upright  cypress  (Cypressus  sempervirens)  ;  for  larch  use 
common  larch. 

In  March  on  stocks  established  in  pots  use  "leader"  cions;  cut 
stocks  about  half  through,  make  a  tongue  half  way  down  the  cut. 
Prepare  cion  similarly,  leaving  growing  point  intact.  Fit  stock  and 
cion  accurately,  bind  with  raffia,  cover  with  prepared  clay  (285) 
and  place  under  staging  for  a  couple  of  days.  Then  smear  union 
again  with  clay  and  plunge  in  a  propagating  case  for  a  couple  of 
weeks.  Avoid  excess  of  water,  but  sprinkle  occasionally  with  a 
fine  rose.  After  hardening  place  in  nursery  bed  with  soil  heaped 
over  union.  To  prevent  annoyance  from  needles,  cut  with  shears; 
don't  pull  out. 

337.  Mango  budding,  according  to  G.  W.  Oliver,  an  American  ex- 
perimenter, is  best  done  when  the  new  leaves  are  not  far  enough 
developed  to  show  bright  green,  because  the  bark  is  then  easiest  re- 
moved. The  thick  part  of  the  stem,  a  few  inches  above  ground,  is 
the  best  place,  a  rectangular  piece  of  bark  about  1^  inches  long 
being  removed  for  a  similar  piece  of  two-year-old  wood  containing 
a  central  bud  of  the  desired  kind  to  replace  it.  After  fitting  the 
bud,  a  light  coat  of  liquid  grafting  wax,  rich  in  resin,  is  brushed 
on  and  the  bud  tied  in  place  with  raffia.  The  stem  just  above  the 
bud  is  then  wound  with  an  8-inch  strip  of  wrapping  paper  and  tied 
in  place  as  a  protection.  As  stocks,  moderate  sized  two  to  three- 
year-old  seedlings  are  best.  Stems  one  inch  or  slightly  more  give 
best  unions. 

Higgins  of  Hawaii  finds  that  patch  budding  (Oliver's  method) 
is  superior  to  inarching,  but  can  be  done  only  when  both  bud  wood 
and  stock  are  in  active  growth,  a  condition  rarely  found  in  both 
at  the  same  time.  Shield  budding  with  inverted  T  gives  better 
results  and  is  quicker  than  patch  budding.  It  may  be  used  when  the 
bud  wood  is  not  in  active  growth. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
METHODS  OF  BUDDING 

338.  Bud  grafting  is  so  special  a  form  of  graftage  that 
it  is  generally  called  budding.     It  is  a  form  in  which  a 
single  bud  with  little  or  no  wood  is  applied  to  the  cam- 
bium of  the  stock  (always  growing  in  normal  position), 
usually  beneath  the  bark.     Many  species  of  plants  are 
propagated   by   either   budding  or   grafting;   others   do 
better  by  one  and  not  the  other  method,  but  there  is  no 
general   rule  by   which   decision   can   be  made,  though 
thin-barked  plants  with  copious  sap  generally  succeed 
best  when  grafted  or  when  buds  are  used  at  the  time  of 
smallest   sap   flow.     Thus   "throwing   out,"    "strangula- 
tion" or  "drowning"  of  the  bud  may  be  obviated. 

Budding  is  widely  popular  for  propagating  fruit  trees, 
especially  the  stone  fruits,  which  are  almost  always 
budded  rather  than  grafted.  Roses,  lilacs  and  many 
ornamental  trees  are  similarly  treated.  In  nurseries  it 
is  perhaps  more  extensively  employed  than  is  grafting. 
The  usual  season  for  budding  of  peach  and  plum  in  the 
North  is  from  midsummer  to  early  fall ;  in  the  South  a 
month  or  six  weeks  earlier.  Thus  southern  nurserymen 
have  an  advantage  over  northern  ones,  because  they  save 
practically  a  year's  time,  and  the  trees,  if  well  grown,  are 
just  as  good  as  northern  grown  trees.  June  budded 
trees  may  be  fall  planted  in  the  South  the  same  season 
as  budded ;  later  ones  not  till  the  following  fall,  because 
the  buds  remain  dormant  till  spring. 

339.  Dormant  budding  in  early  spring  is  done  to  a 
limited  extent  in  a  few  southern  states.     In  the  North, 
cherries  and  apples  are  usually  budded  in  June  and  July, 
though  sometimes  not  till  August.     With  fully  dormant 
buds  saved  as  for  grafting  cions  (307),  budding  may  be 


256  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

done  as  soon  as  the  bark  loosens  in  spring.  It  is  essential 
to  speed  and  success  that  the  bark  lift  readily  from  the 
wood.  Clear,  dry  weather  also  favors  the  work. 

340.  Shield  budding   is   by   far    the    most    important 
method  practiced  in  America.     It  is  so  called  from  the 
form  of  the  bark  of  the  cion  bud — an  elongated  oval.     In 
popular  parlance  the  bud  with  its  surrounding  bark  as  cut 
is  called  the  "bud"  (Fig.  202).    Essentially  the  operation 
consists  in  inserting  a  bud  cut  from  a  twig  of  the  desired 
variety  beneath  the  bark  of  a  stock  cut  in  the  form  of  a 
T  or  a  cross  and  lifted  gently  to  receive  it.     The  bud  is 
then  tied  in  place,  but  the  binding  cut  in  ten  days  or  two 
weeks,   to  prevent  "strangulation"  of    the    bud,  which 
pushes    into    growth    when    conditions    are    favorable. 
Shortly  after,  the  top  of  the  stock  is  cut  off,  so  all  food 
from  the  root  will  develop  the  budded  top. 

In  many  respects  the  small  details  differ  in  the  hands 
of  different  budders ;  for  instance,  height  and  length  of 
vertical  cut,  position  of  cross  cut,  cutting  of  bud  and 
method  of  tying. 

341.  When  stocks  are  budded. — Peach  and  other  stone 
fruit  seedlings,  being  of  rapid  growth,  are  usually  large 
enough   in  the  North  to  bud  a  little  after  midsummer. 
Apple  and  pear  seedlings  grow  one  year  where  the  seeds 
are  sown.     The  following  spring  they  are  transplanted 
to  other  nursery  rows  after  the  unavoidable  shortening 
of  roots.     All  that  grow  large  enough  between  June  and 
September  are  budded  that  season.     The  age  of  the  stock 
is  then  forgotten,  because  it  is  of  no  consequence  in  the 
finished  tree,  whose  age  dates  from  the  time  when  the 
buds  or  cions  grow.     Thus  peach  budded  this  year  in 
the  North  in  August  starts  to  grow  next  spring,  and  by 
the  following  November  has  become  a  "one-year"  tree, 
though  15  months  have  elapsed  since  the  budding;  but  a 
tree  budded  in  the  South  in  June  of  this  year  becomes  a 
"one-year"  tree  when  only  five  months  old  in  November 
this  vear.     In  each  case  the  trees  may  be  sold  for  fall  or 


METHODS    OF    BUDDING 


257 


for  spring  planting  as  "one-year"  trees,  though  the  south- 
ern stock  is  usually  not  ready  soon  enough  for  fall  plant- 
ing in  the  North. 

Apple,  pear  and  other  transplanted  stocks  are 
"dressed"  or  trimmed  prior  to  setting  in  the  nursery; 
that  is,  both  root  and  top  are  shortened  a  quarter  or  a 
third.  This  prevents  the  re-formation  of  tap  roots  and 


FIG.    202— THE    PROCESS    OF    SHIELD    BUDDING 

1,  Making  vertical   cut;   2,  making  cross  or  T  cut;  3,  cutting  the   bud;   4,  bud 
inserted   in  stock;  5,  tying;     6,   finished  work  with   bud  tied   in   place. 

makes  the  roots  branch.  It  also  favors  the  development 
of  a  sturdy  top,  because  the  number  of  shoots  is  reduced. 
The  effect  of  the  former  development  is  to  make  a  more 
easily  dug  and  transplanted  tree;  that  of  the  latter,  one 
more  readily  handled. 

342.  Preparing  the  stocks. — To  be  budded  without  dif- 
ficulty stocks  should  be  one-half  inch  in  diameter  or 
larger,  though  in  nursery  practice  those  three-eighths 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


inch  are  also  budded.  A  day  or  two  before  the  budding, 
boys  or  girls  rub  the  leaves  and  twigs  off  the  lower  four 
to  six  inches  of  the  stems,  so  they  will  not  impede  the 
budders.  If  longer  ahead  of  budding  than  three  days, 
the  bark  will  "set"  and  thus  hinder  speed  in  budding. 
Buds  are  set  as  near  the  ground  as  the  operator  can  work 
— one  inch  or  two.  This  brings  the  union  so  low  that 
the  unavoidable  crook  in  the  stem  is  inconspicuous.  It 
also  permits  setting  the  tree  in  the  orchard  slightly  lower 
than  in  the  nursery.  Best  results  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere are  claimed  to 
follow  setting  the  buds 
on  the  north  side  of  the 
stocks  so  the  sun  will 
not  shine  directly  on 
them.  Doubtless  in  the 
southern  hemisphere, 
the  southern  side  will 
give  best  results. 

343.  Budding  wood 
for  summer  work  al- 
ways consists  of  well- 
hardened  wood  of  the 
present  season's  devel- 
opment and  of  the  va- 
riety it  is  desired  to 
propagate.  The  twigs, 
which  should  be  about 
one-fourth  inch  in  diam- 
eter at  their  bases,  are 
severed  from  the  par- 
ent trees  and  the  leaf 
blades  cut  off.  The  leaf  stems  may  be  shortened  to 
about  one-half  inch  so  as  to  serve  as  handles  when  the 
buds  are  being  placed  in  the  stocks.  After  trimming,  the 
twigs  are  called  "bud  sticks."  They  may  bear  half  a 
dozen  to  two  dozen  buds  developed  enough  for  use,  but 


FIG.    203— SECURING    BUD    STICKS 

Such  wood  should  be  cut  from  bearing  trees 

to   be   sure    of   variety. 


METHODS   OF    BUDDING 


259 


the  average  is  probably  about  ten.  The  leaf  buds  near 
the  tips  of  the  twigs  are  generally  not  mature  enough  to 
be  safe  to  use,  so  they  and  the  flower  buds  are  thrown 
away.  Flower  buds  are  plumper  and  more  pointed  than 
leaf  buds,  so  are  easily  recognized. 

The  buds  are  cut  from  the  bud  sticks  with  a  thin- 
bladed,  razor-edged  knife,  usually  as  follows :  With  the 
bud  stick  held  in  one  hand  (Fig.  202),  the  knife  is  started 
about  three-fourths  inch  above  or  below  the  bud,  accord- 
ing to  the  preference  of  the  operator,  and  a  cut  through 
the  bark  into  the  wood  is  made  toward  the  operator's 
body  until  a  bud  with  about  an  inch  of  bark  and  wood  is 
almost  severed  from  the  twig.  The  knife  is  then  with- 

A 

r\ 


FIG.  204— VARIOUS  STYLES  OF   BUDDING    KNIVES 

A,  florists';  B,  D,  knives  with  closing  blades  and  bone  bark  lifters;  C,  E, 
closing  blades  without  bark  lifters;  F,  G,  H,  styles  of  stationary  bladed  nursery 
budding  knives. 


26O  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

drawn  and  the  other  buds  treated  in  the  same  way  until 
all  that  are  fit  for  budding  have  been  cut  but  left  attached 
to  the  twigs.  The  bud  sticks  are  then  usually  dipped  in 
water,  wrapped  in  wet  cloth  and  taken  to  the  nursery  row 
for'  budding.  Many  operators  prefer  to  cut  the  buds 
fresh  as  they  are  needed,  because  there  is  less  risk  of 
drying.  The  chief  advantages  of  the  plan  outlined  are 
that  it  saves  time,  and  less  high-priced  labor  than  that  of 
the  actual  budders  can  do  the  work.  The  buds  as  needed 
are  cut  from  the  bud  stick  with  a  single  motion. 

For  years  budders  have  disagreed  as  to  the  advisability 
of  removing  the  little  chip  of  wood  beneath  the  bark  of 
the  bud  as  cut  from  the  bud  stick.  No  experiments  seem 
to  have  been  tried  to  prove  its  use  or  harm.  Many 
budders  pry  it  out  with  the  tip  of  the  knife  blade  or  by 
twisting  the  stick  as  the  bud  is  being  cut.  No  difference 
is  apparent  in  the  resulting  trees  whether  or  not  this 
wood  is  removed.  It  would  seem  that  the  wood  might 
help  to  hold  moisture  until  the  bud  has  united  with  the 
stock,  but  that  if  removed  the  cambium  layers  would 
grow  together  more  quickly.  If  the  bud  is  cut  thick, 
the  older  parts  of  the  wood  doubtless  do  not  unite,  though 
the  younger  parts  probably  do ;  so  it  may  be  well  to  cut 
at  least  this  dense  part. 

344.  Budding  knives  are  of  many  styles,  and  operators 
have  their  pronounced  preferences,  but  probably  the  one 
most  used  in  the  big  commercial  nurseries  for  field  work 
is  in  Fig.  204.  It  costs  about  $1.75  by  the  dozen.  The 
budding  knife  should  be  made  of  the  finest  steel,  have  a 
thin  blade  about  two  inches  long;  the  cutting  edge,  kept 
razor  sharp,  should  extend  from  front  to  back  in  a  quarter 
circle.  The  blade  should  be  set  in  a  light,  convenient 
handle,  which  may  be  stationary  or  slotted  to  receive  it. 
The  straight  part  of  the  blade  is  used  for  general  pur- 
poses, such  as  bud  cutting,  and  the  curved  end  for  making 
incisions  in  stocks.  Many  budding  knife  handles  extend 
into  a  thin  bone,  ivory  or  celluloid,  spatula-shaped  blade 


METHODS    OF    BUDDING  26l 

used  to  lift  the  bark  of  the  stocks.  Probably  the  great 
majority  of  expert  budders  have  no  use  for  such  a  device ; 
they  raise  the  bark  with  the  knife  blade. 

345.  Making  the  incisions. — In  making  a  slot  for  the 
bud  to  fit  in,  two  cuts  are  necessary.     Neither  must  pene- 
trate deeper  than  through  the  bark.     The  first  is  usually 
placed  near  the  upper  end  of  the  second,  with  which  it 
makes  a  cross.     The    second    generally    made    extends 
about  one  and  one-half  inches  lengthwise  of  the  stock,  the 
rounded  end  of  the  knife  being  used.     Some  budders  pre- 
fer to  place  the  cross  cut  below  (270).     So  far  as  results 
are  concerned,  one  is  probably  as  good   as  the  other. 
Placing  the  bud  in  position  may  be  easier  for  one  man  to 
"bud  up"   and   for   another  to   "bud   down."     After   the 
corners   of  bark    in    the    angles   of   the   cross   are   lifted 
slightly  to   split  the  bark  from   the  wood   through   the 
cambium,  the  bud  may  be  inserted  and  gently  pressed 
into  place  by  the  fingers,  which  grasp  the  leaf  petiole 
handle.     If  any  part  of  the  bud  sliver  protrudes  from  the 
slot,  it  should  be  cut  off,  for  unless  the  entire  piece  is 
closely  applied  to  the  stock  wood  and  is  covered  by  the 
bark,  it  may  make  a  poor  union,  or  not  unite  at  all,  with 
the  stock.     When  the  bark  lifts  readily  no  such  trouble 
will  be  experienced,  for  the  bud  will  slip  into  place  with- 
out trouble  (Fig.  202). 

346.  Tying  follows.— Raffia  (292),  the  most  widely  used 
tier,  is  cut  in  lengths  of  about  a  foot  prior  to  the  work. 
Until  raffia  displaced  it,  bass  (291)  was  the  leading  tier, 
though  carpet  warp,  yarn  and  other  soft  strings  were  also 
used,  and  are  still  to  some  extent.     The  hank  of  raffia, 
held  near  its  middle  between  both  hands,  is  placed  agaHsi 
the  lower  end  of  the  vertical  cut.     The  hands  are  then 
moved  to  the  rear  of  the  stock  where  they  exchange  the 
ends,  which  are  made  to  cross  each  other.     The  crossing 
is  repeated  in  front  over  the  cut  but  higher  up  than  the 
first  round.     So  on  till  the  whole  cut  is  covered,  on1-- 
the  bud  being  left  visible.     Three  or  four  double  rounds 


262 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


complete  the  ligature,  which  is  tied  at  the  top.  In  another 
method  of  tying,  the  raffia  is  wrapped  around  the  stock 
twice  or  thrice  at  the  bottom  of  the  bud  and  twice  at  the 
top,  where  it  is  tied  in  a  single  knot.  Some  operators  can 
make  better  speed  by  passing  one  end  of  the  raffia  under 
the  other  at  the  last  round.  The  bud  itself  must  not  be 
covered,  else  it  might  "strangle." 

347.  Cutting  the  ligatures.— Strangling  may  even  yet 

occur  unless  the  raffia  around  the  buds  is 
cut  within  three  weeks  of  the  budding.  The 
usual  way  is  to  draw  a  budding  knife  up- 
ward through  the  windings  on  the  side  of 
the  stock  opposite  the  bud  and  let  the  cut 
pieces  fall  off.     Since  the  tier  is  very  in- 
elastic, it  will  not  "give"  with  the  growth 
of  the  stem  and  the  setting  bud,  so,  unless 
it  is  cut  it  will  either  kill  the  bud  or  force 
it   to    "break,"    i.    e.,    grow.      For   success 
in  the  cold  climates,  however,  the  bud,  to 
winter  over,  must  be  wholly  dormant  until 
spring,  otherwise  it  will  probably  winter- 
kill. Stocks  which,  at  tier-cutting  time,  are 
BUD  SPROUT     shriveled  and  brown  instead  of  green  and 
DCK   plump,  may  be  re-budded.  If  warm  and  wet 
weather  in  the  fall  starts  the  buds  there  is 
little  remedy,  though  some  sprouts  may  be  saved  by  head- 
ing them  back ;  others  may  survive  the  winter  if  covered 
by  snow. 

348.  Spring  care  of  budded   stock. — As   soon   as   the 
stocks  begin   to  put   forth   leaves   in   spring  their  tops 
should  be  cut  off  4  to  6  inches  above  the  bud,  which  will 
still  be  dormant.     Thus  all  plant  food  taken  up  by  the 
roots  will  be  forced  into  the  bud.     In  about  two  weeks 
when  the  bud  has  developed  a  shoot  an  inch  or  more  long 
the  stub  of  the  stocks  is  cut  within  one-half  inch  above 
the  bud.     Some  nurserymen  cut  the  stocks  only  once, 


METHODS   OF   BUDDING 


263 


but  a  larger  enough  percentage  of  successes  follow  the 
two-cutting  plan  to  make  it  fairly  popular. 

In  good  soil  and  with  a  good  root  system,  the  buds, 
depending  on  the  species,  will  develop  shoots  2  to  5  feet 
tall,  or  even  more  by  fall.  Sprouts  must  be  rubbed  off 
the  stocks  whenever  they  appear  and  the  bud  shoot  en- 
couraged to  grow  straight  and  forkless,  and  all  the  leaves 
on  the  shoot  should  be  allowed  to  remain.  With 
crooked  and  weak-growing  varieties  tying  may  be  nec- 
vssary.  For  convenience  in  doing  this  work  stock  stubs 
.jire  often  left  on  orna- 
nental  trees,  seldom  on 
ruit  trees,  because  of  its 
expense,  to  act  as  stakes 
tgainst  which  to  tie  the 
bud  sprouts  (Fig.  205). 
Except  in  mixed  graft- 
ing (330),  shoots  on  the 
stock  must  not  be  allow- 
ed to  grow  or  they  will 
rob  the  bud  shoot  of 
food  and  develop  even 
stronger  shoots.  Toward 
the  end  of  the  growing 
season  these  stubs  must 
be  carefully  cut  close  to 

the    Union    of       bud       and  The  wood   is  kept  cold  till  needed.       The 

Stock  method    gives    better    results    than    the    ordi- 

349.  In  "June  bud- 
ding," stocks  one-fourth  to  one-third  inch  in  diam- 
eter are  favored.  Instead  of  stripping  the  lower 
part  of  the  stocks  completely  of  leaves,  as  in  north- 
ern budding,  a  few  leaves  are  left  below  the  point  of  bud- 
ding to  serve  as  feeders.  Because  of  the  heat  of  the  soil 
surface,  in  hot,  dry  climates,  it  is  customary  to  place  the 
buds  an  inch  or  two  higher  than  in  northern  practice. 
To  avoid  the  sudden  and  violent  check  to  growth  which 


FIG.    206— COLD    BOX    METHOD 
OF    STORING    CION    WOOD 


264  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

would  follow  removal  of  the  whole  top  early  in  the  sea- 
son, several  cuts  of  the  top  are  made  so  the  bud  shoot  will 
not  have  too  great  a  strain  put  upon  it.  Sometimes  the 
stock  tops  are  bent  over,  or  broken  (270),  twisted  or  par- 
tially stripped  of  leaves  and  twigs  or  otherwise  treated  so 
the  bud  shoot  will  gradually  accustom  itself  to  its  work. 
In  due  time,  of  course,  the  stock  is  cut  off.  The  ligatures 
must  be  cut  sooner  than  in  the  North,  say  in  a  week  to 
ten  days,  depending  on  how  vigorously  the  stock  is  grow- 
ing. Instead  of  raffia  or  bast,  strips  of  somewhat  elastic 
cotton  are  sometimes  employed  as  tier,  because  they 
"give"  more  with  trunk  expansion. 

350.  Summer  budding  of  apples. — Apples,  pears  and 
other  tree  fruits  are  often  summer  budded,  but  the  stocks 
have  grown  in  the  nursery  row  a  year  or  two.     Some- 
times the  buds  used  are  dormant,  having  been  cut  and 
stored,  like  cions  for  cleft  grafting  (312),  sometimes  cur- 
rent season's  growth.     This  plan  is  annually  becoming 
more  popular,  partly  because  the  nurserymen  think  they 
thus  get  better  trees  than  by  grafting  and  partly  because 
the  nurseryman  is  thus  enabled  to  keep  his  men  busy  to 
better  advantage  by  extending  the  work  over  a  longer 
period.     For  top  working  trees,  either  those  that  failed 
to  "take"  the  previous  season  or  those  established  in  or- 
chards,  this   method   also   has   its   obvious   advantages. 
The  buds  grow  as  do  cions  in  cleft  grafting,  so  a  full 
season's  time  is  gained. 

351.  Plate  budding  (Fig.  200) — Instead  of  making  one 
longitudinal  cut  in  the  stock,  two  of  equal  length   are 
made  parallel.     The  upper  ends  are  then  joined  by  a  cut 
and  the  bark  lifted,  thus  forming  a  rectangular  flap  still 
attached  below  to  the  stock  and  1  inch  to  \l/2  inches  long. 
A  bud  on  a  piece  of  bark,  but  with  no  wood,  is  cut  to  fit 
the  space,  inserted,  covered  by  the  flap  which  is  made  to 
cover  it,  and  tied.     From  then  forward  treatment  is  the 
same  as  for  shield  budding  (340).     Two  slight  modifica- 
tions of  this  method  may  be  noted :     The  flap  may  be 


METHODS   OF    BUDDING  265 

split  so  a  part  may  be  fitted  on  each  side  of  the  bud,  or  it 
may  be  shortened  so  the  bud  itself  will  not  be  covered, 
but  only  that  part  of  the  cion  bark  below  the  bud  end. 

352.  Prong,  spur  or  twig  budding  is  shield  budding, 
modified  by  the  use  of  a  short  spur  or  twig  instead  of  a 
bud  and  removal  of  the  upper  part  of  the  stock.    The  bark 
of  both  stock  and  cion  are  cut  in  the  same  way.     English 
walnuts  while  dormant  are  often  budded  thus  in  Cali- 
fornia.    This  form  resembles  grafting  in  the  removal  of 
stock  above  bud  at  the  time  of  budding,  and  in  the  use 
of  grafting  wax  over  wounds  to  prevent  drying  and  en- 
trance of  decay.     In  budding  thick-barked  subjects,  such 
as  walnut,  wood  beneath  the  bud  bark  must  be  almost  all 
removed,  so  the  cambium  layers  will  come  in  better  con- 
tact than  if  it  is  left.     The  little  piece  of  wood  that  ex- 
tends up  into  the  prong  should  not  be  cut  out. 

353.  H-budding  (Fig.  200)  is  a  form  of  plate  budding  in 
which  the  cross-cut  is  made  about  midway  between  the 
ends  of  the  longitudinal  cuts,  thus  forming  two  flaps  be- 
tween which  the  bud  is  placed.     Because  the  bud  may 
thus  be  covered  both  above  and  below,  a  better  fit  of  bud 
to  stock  can  be  secured. 

354.  Chip  budding  (Fig.  200)  consists  in  cutting  a  mor- 
tise in  a  small  stock  and  inserting  a  one-bud  chip  of  bark 
with  a  little  wood  cut  to  fit  snugly.     This  is  held  in  po- 
sition by  tying,  and  is  usually  waxed.     It  is  used  while 
the  stock  is  dormant  in  spring  before  the  bark  will  slip. 

355.  Flute  budding  (Fig.  200)  is  a  development  beyond 
plate  budding,  because  in  it  a  rectangular  piece  of  bark 
in  the  stock  is  removed  entirely  and  replaced  by  a  bud- 
bearing  piece  of  bark  cut  to  fit  the  space.     As  a  rule  this 
work  is  done  in  late  spring  on  plants  with  very  thick  bark. 
Tying  is.  of  course,  needed  as  in  shield  budding  (340). 

356.  Veneer  budding,  a  synonym  for  flute  budding. 

357.  Annular  or  ring  budding  (Fig.  200),  the  same  as 
flute  budding  except  that  a  ring  of  bark  is  removed  from 
the  stock,  which  must  be  rather  small,  by  making  two 


266  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

parallel  cuts  one-half  inch  to  one  inch  apart  around  a 
stock,  joining  these  by  a  cut  at  right  angles,  removing  the 
ring,  fitting  in  a  bud-bearing  piece  of  bark  and  tying  as 
in  shield  budding.  This  method  is  popular  for  budding 
pecan  and  walnut.  The  work  is  best  done  in  summer 
when  the  bark  peels  readily.  The  buds  must  be  taken 
from  twigs  rather  younger  than  the  stocks. 

358.  Whistle  or  tubular  budding,  another  modification 
of      flute      budding,      consists      in      slipping      off      an 
inch  or  so  of  bark  at  the  end  of  a  shoot  and  replacing  it 
with  a  similar  piece  bearing  a  bud  of  a  desired  variety. 

359.  Budding   old  peach   trees — For   old   peach   trees  that  re- 
quired new   wood   an   Australian   experimenter   sharpened   a  piece 
of  bone  like  a  lead  pencil,  fitted  it  to  a  handle,  made  incisions  in  the 
bark  of  10-year-old  trees  and  fitted  buds  in  the  holes.     The  buds 
were  held  in  position  by  small  pieces  of  leather,  held  in  place  by 
upholsterers'  enameled  gimp  pins,   which   did  not  rust  and  which 
became  loose  as  the  buds  swelled.     An  advantage  claimed  is  that 
the  method  does  not  interfere  with  bearing  while  the  buds  are  being 
matured.     Neither  clay  nor  wax  is  needed. 

360.  Stock  sucker's  influence — H.  M.  Stringfellow  of  Texas  found 
that  when  a  peach  tree  was  budded  high  (18  inches)  and  developed 
a  sucker  below  the  bud,  the  branch  from  the  bud  gradually  failed 
and  died.     He  also  noted  that  where  cions  on  budded  stock  were 
planted   deep  enough  to  send  out   their  own   roots,   Dwarfing   and 
even  killing  of  the  stock  roots  followed.     He  therefore  recommends 
high  budding  (12  to  15  inches  from  the  ground),  in  order  to  secure 
long-lived  budded  trees,  because  this,  he  contends,  will  allow  rea- 
sonably deep  planting  without  burying  any  part  of  the  cion. 

361.  Winter  budding  of  peaches  in  Texas,  according  to  R.  H. 
Price,  was  experimentally  done  by  the  following  method :     Cuttings 
were  taken  when  the  sap  was  dormant.     A  slide  of  bark  was  cut 
down  the  stock,  but  left  attached  at  the  lower  end.     Part  of  the 
top  of  the  loose  strip  was  then  cut  off,  the  bud  of  a  desired  variety 
fitted  over   the    cut   place   and   bound  on   firmly   with  raffia.     The 
stocks  were  then  kept   in   sphagnum   moss  till   spring,   when   they 
were  planted.    All  but  one  of  the  50  made   strong  shoots  during 
the  growing  season. 

362.  Top  working  peach. — When  peach  trees  begin  to 
fruit  and  are  found  worthless,  the  question  is,  Will  it  pay 
to  top  work  them?     Experience  has  proved  that  usually 
time  and  money  will  be  saved  by  pulling  them  out  if  over 
four  or  five  years  old   rather  than  "dehorning"   them, 
waiting  till  water  sprouts  or  other  limbs  in  desirable  po- 


METHODS  OF   BUDDING  267 

sitions  are  large  enough  to  bud,  and  then  running  the  risk 
of  failure  of  the  buds  to  "take"  and  of  possible  loss  through 
accident  or  disease.  New  trees  require  only  three  or  four 
years  to  come  into  bearing;  but  at  least  as  much  time  is 
required  with  top-worked  trees  plus  the  likelihood  of 
having  poorer  trees  in  the  end. 


268 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


FIG.  207— METHODS   OF  DIGGING   NURSERY   STOCK 

Id   way"    with    nursery   spades.      2. 


1.   An   extreme  case   of  "the   good 
new  with   steam  power  and  wire  cables. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
NURSERY  MANAGEMENT 

363.  Value    of    nursery    stock. — From    the    preface 
the  extent  of  the  nursery  business  in  the  United  States 
may  be  seen.     The  acre  return  in  1909  is  averaged  at 
$261.     Doubtless  many  nurseries  paid  less  than  this,  and 
probably  a  fair  proportion  paid  more.     If  10,000  good 
trees  can  be  grown  to  the  acre  and  sold  at  an  average  of 
20  cents  (and  they  can  be),  the  return  would  be  $2,000, 
which,  divided  by  four  years — two  for  stock  growing  and 
two  for  rest — the  income  would  be  $500  a  year.     Ex- 
penses are  heavy,  however,  partly  because  nursery  lands 
usually  command  high  rent  (sometimes  $100  a  year),  and 
partly  because  of  the  necessary  equipment  and  the  skilled 
labor  needed  in  the  business,  as  may  be  judged  by  the 
general  discussion  in  this  volume,  so  there  is  not  as  much 
money  in  nursery  stock  as  may  at  first  appear. 

364.  Laying  out  a  nursery. — Since  horse  cultivation  is 
necessary,  nurseries    should    be  laid  out  with  turning 
ground  12  feet  wide  at  opposite  ends  of  the  rows,  and 
cross  alleys  at  convenient  distances  both  for  the  removal 
of  stock  and  for  labeling.     In  most  nurseries  the  rows 
vary  from  100  to  300  feet  long,  but  in  large  ones  they  are 
sometimes  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long. 

365.  Shelters  are  advisable  where  the  prevailing  winds 
are   strong.     They   help   protect   young  bud   and   graft 
shoots  from  being  broken  or  blown  off  and  aid  the  trees 
to  grow  straight.     Where  natural  shelter — a  hill  or  a 
wood  to  windward — is  not  available,  mixed  shelter  belts 
of  deciduous  and  evergreen  trees,  placed  beyond  their  root 
reach  of  the  nursery  rows,  will  serve  well.     Low  grounds, 
though    sheltered,    are    not    desirable    beca.use    usually 
frosty.     Everything  that  will  cause  snow  drifts  among 
the  stock  should  be  avoided. 

269 


270 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


366.  Digging  stock  may  be  done  at  any  time  the  ground 
can  be  worked  after  the  leaves  fall  and  before  the  buds 
swell  in  spring,  except  when  the  temperature  is  below 
freezing.  In  a  small  way  nursery  spades  may  be  used  to 
lift  individual  trees.  On  a  larger  scale  a  furrow  may  be 
thrown  away  from  the  trees  on  each  side  of  the  rows 
and  then  spades  used.  In  big  commercial  nurseries  the 
tree  digger  (Fig.  152)  is  drawn  by  horses  (Fig.  213)  or  by 
wire  cables  attached  to  drums  operated  by  steam  or  gaso- 


FIG.    208— MODERN    METHOD    OF    DIGGING    NURSERY    STOCK 

The  el  cables  wound  on  the  drums  by  the  engine  draw  the  digger  from 
end  to  end  of  the  nursery  rows. 

line  engines.  Nursery  spades  of  steel  and  wood  and 
costing  several  dollars  each,  and  made  strong  enough 
to  stand  heavy  strains,  are  generally  worked  in  pairs  or 
threes  (Fig.  207)  around  and  a  foot  or  more  from  the  bases 
of  the  trees.  The  blades,  at  least  15  inches  long,  are 
thrust  full  depth  in  the  soil  under  the  trees,  which  are 
lifted  by  leverage,  care  being  taken  to  cut  or  break  the 
roots  as  little  as  possible. 

367.  Nursery  soils  and  their  care. — Best  nursery  stock 
is  usually  produced  on  heavy  soils,  those  in  which  clay 
rather  than  sand  predominates.  Of  course,  if  level,  so 


NURSERY  MANAGEMENT  271 

much  the  better.  Thorough  drainage,  either  natural  or 
artificial,  is  essential  because  nursery  trees  "don't  like  wet 
feet."  At  least  one  season  prior  to  planting  nursery 
stock,  the  land  should  be  devoted  to  some  (preferably  in- 
ter-tilled) farm  crop — corn,  potatoes,  mangels,  cabbage, 
etc. — so  it  will  have  had  deep  and  thorough  cultivation. 
Since  the  nursery  crop  usually  requires  two  or  more 
years,  the  land  must  be  in  prime  condition  when  the  trees 
are  started  in  it.  Otherwise  the  crop  will  be  mediocre, 
if  not  poor.  Since  sales  of  fruit  trees,  at  least,  depend 
upon  age,  size,  caliper,  etc.,  growth  must  be  sturdy  and 
quick ;  with  ornamental  trees  and  shrubs  price  is  fixed 
scarcely  at  all  by  age,  but  more  by  the  size  of  subject. 
Hence  land  too  poor  to  produce  good  fruit  trees  may  yet 
be  suitable  for  producing  ornamental  stock. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  soil  which  has  just  pro- 
duced a  crop  of  nursery  stock  should  not  be  devoted  to 
nursery  stock  again  without  a  "rest" ;  this,  too,  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  instances  of  success  under  repeated  crop- 
ping may  be  cited.  Cherries  and  apples  often  produce  a 
second  crop  of  good  trees  without  a  rest  between,  and 
plums  have  been  known  to  do  well  for  5,  10  or  even  more 
crops  when  the  ground  has  been  well  manured.  Pears 
rarely  do  well  twice  in  succession.  Nurserymen,  there- 
fore, change  their  land  and  in  many  cases  rent  what  they 
need  for  terms  of  several  years. 

The  New  York  state  station,  after  analyzing  large 
numbers  of  nursery  trees,  presents  the  following  state- 
ment based  upon  the  table  condensed  below: 

[From  the  table!  it  will  be  seen  that  since,  upon  an 
average,  it  requires  from  three  to  four  years  to  grow  a 
crop  of  nursery  stock,  cereals  make  a  far  greater  demand 
upon  the  soil  than  does  nursery  stock,  and  it  is  a  matter 
of  common  observation  that  removal  of  a  tree  crop  leaves 
the  soil  in  excellent  condition  for  cereals. 


272  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

PHOSPHORIC  ACID  AND  POTASH  REMOVED  FROM  SOIL  BY  VARIOUS  CROPS 


Phosphoric 
Acid 

Potash 

Nursery  Stock,  1  1  tons  

One  ton 

21.4 
184 

27.1 
12  5 

Rye         "        

18.2 

11.5 

Barley     "        

16.4 
14  1 

10.6 
103 

Maize     ' 

12  7 

7  7 

Wheat  straw  

5.7 

12.4 

Rye          '        

5.5 
4  7 

16.0 
22  5 

Oats          ' 

43 

21  3 

Maize       '        

9.1 

38.9 

368.  Effects  of  nursery  crops  on  soil. — Roberts  of  Cor- 
nell University  has  published  analyses  of  nursery  stock 
to  show  what  plant  food  is  removed  by  the  four  leading 
kinds  of  fruit  trees.  The  quantities  appear  in  the  follow- 
ing table : 

POUNDS  OF  FERTILIZING  COMPOUNDS  NEEDED  BY  NURSERY  STOCK 


Nitrogen  
Phosphoric  Acid   
Potash             

Apples 
29.07 
10.13 
19.73 

Pears 
24.83 
7.83 
1333 

Peaches 
22,42 
5,42 
11.75 

Plums 
19.75 
4.42 
11.50 

The  significance  of  these  figures  can  best  be  appre- 
ciated by  a  comparison  with  those  of  other  crops;  for 
instance,  silage  corn.  This  crop  grown  in  drills  yields 
12  to  20  tons  an  acre  and  will  repeat  the  performance  on 
manured  land,  fully  as  well,  at  least  once.  Yet,  to  quote 
Roberts's  statement,  "The  amount  of  green  corn  necessary 
to  remove  an  equal  amount  of  fertilizing  ingredients 
per  acre,  taking  the  average  of  the  .  .  .  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  .  .  .  removed  by  an 
acre  of  trees  (three  years'  growth),  would  be  4,779 
pounds."  Nursery  trees  are,  therefore,  seen  to  take  only 
small  amounts  of  plant  food  from  the  soil.  Nursery 
lands,  it  is  reasoned,  should  supply  three  to  ten  times  the 
plant  food  needed  by  the  trees.  Experience  also  supports 


NURSERY  MANAGEMENT  273 

this  deduction  from  the  analyses  and  shows  that  good 
crops  of  potatoes,  beans,  wheat,  etc.,  are  secured  after 
land  has  been  "treed."  Why  not  nursery  stock?  The 
reason  is  not  a  chemical  but  a  physical  one.  The  very 
methods  of  thorough  and  deep  tillage  necessary  to  pro- 
duce good  trees  injure  the  soil  texture  by  "burning  up" 
the  vegetable  matter,  a  result  most  noticeable  in  heavy 
soils,  the  very  ones  which  produce  best  nursery  stock. 
As  a  rule  no  system  of  cover  cropping  and  none  of  ma- 
nuring between  the  rows  is  practiced,  so  there  is  neither 
protection  of  the  soil  during  winter  nor  renewal  of  vege- 
table matter  while  the  trees  are  growing — one  to  three 
or  more  years.  Then,  too,  when  the  trees  are  dug  their 
roots  go  too,  and  since  the  work  is  usually  done  in  the 
fall,  frequently  when  the  ground  should  not  be  worked 
at  all,  the  soil  must  pay  the  penalty;  namely,  puddling 
more  or  less  serious  the  following  spring  and  summer 
and  refusal  to  "work  up"  again  for  nursery  trees  until 
after  a  rest  in  grain,  hay  or  pasture. 

369.  Cover  crops  for  nursery  lands. — Since  the 
nursery  lands  are  usually  heavy,  it  would  seem  that  sweet 
clover  should  have  special  value  in  bringing  them  back 
quickly  into  good  heart,  because  this  plant  burrows 
deeply  and  opens  up  the  soil  well  besides  adding  con- 
siderable humus,  both  by  its  decaying  roots  and  its  tops, 
when  these  are  turned  under.  Perhaps  it  would  reduce 
the  resting  period  to  two  or  three  years,  as  against  three 
to  five  or  even  more  under  common  practice.  If  cover 
crops,  such  as  crimson  clover,  buckwheat  and  rye,  were 
grown  between  the  rows  and  plowed  or  disked  under  in 
early  spring,  the  evil  effects  on  the  land  would  also  be 
lessened.  Coarse  manure  certainly  has  helped  where 
applied  between  the  rows  in  autumn  or  spring,  but  among 
nursery  stock  it  is  not  always  convenient  to  apply.  It 
should,  therefore,  be  liberally  added  after  a  nursery  crop 
has  been  harvested.  A  second  crop  could  thus  be  planted 
within  two  years  with  good  prospects  of  success. 


I 


If 


w 

i 


E! 

9  * 

P  2 


NURSERY   MANAGEMENT  275 

Commercial  fertilizers  may  often  be  applied  to  nursery 
stock  with  profit.  Usually  nitrogen  is  needed  in  liberal 
supply  to  insure  strong  growth.  Considerable  quantities 
can  be  secured  from  legumes,  hence  the  advisability  of 
growing  a  crimson  clover  cover  crop.  When  the  trees 
are  showing  yellowish  leaves  on  poor  spindling  growth, 
a  top-dressing  of  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulphate  of  ammonia, 
about  300  pounds  an  acre,  during  late  spring  or  early 
summer,  will  help  matters  considerably,  but  the  tillage 
should  be  good  so  the  soil  nitrogen  may  be  utilized 
first.  Nitrogenous  fertilizers  must  be  used  with  great 
caution,  otherwise  they  may  force  too  succulent  a  growth. 
This,  especially  if  produced  near  the  close  of  the  season, 
might  not  ripen.  The  trees  would  thus  be  subject  to 
winter  injury,  they  would  transplant  with  greater  diffi- 
culty and  be  unsatisfactory  to  the  planter. 

370.  Winter  protection  of  nurseries. — From  over  100 
replies  to  queries  concerning  behavior  of  nursery  stock  in 
a  very  severe  winter  in  the  Northwest  states  and  adjacent 
Canada  it  is  deduced  that  the  results  of  injuries  suggest 
(1)  the  value  of  snow  as  a  covering  for  nursery  stock,  (2) 
the  advisability  of  planting  nurseries  as  far  as  practicable 
on  north  slopes,  (3)  interspersing  nursery  blocks  with 
evergreen  windbreaks  extending  east  and  west.     Next  to 
snow  as  a  cover  is  litter,  for  which  oats,  buckwheat,  peas, 
vetches,  or  mammoth  clover  are  advised  as  catch  crops, 
the  clover  only  for  wet  seasons. 

371.  Storing  nursery  stock  in  frost-proof  winter  quar- 
ters is  popular  with  a  majority  of  the  large  nurseries, 
because  it  is  believed  that  the  stock  is  in  better  condition 
to  thrive  when  dug  in  the  fall  and  stored  at  an  even  tem- 
perature  approximating   the   freezing  point   than   when 
allowed  to  stand  in  the  nursery  and  be  subjected  to  wide 
temperature  fluctuations.     Besides  this  is  the  great  ad- 
vantage that  packing  may  be  done  under  favorable  con- 
ditions.    But  whether  the  trees  are  actually  better  when 
they  reach  the  fruit  grower  is  an  undecided  point. 


226 


NURSERY   MANAGEMENT  277 

Winter  storage  should  be  at  a  uniform  temperature  of 
28  to  30  degrees.  At  this  temperature  little  ventilation 
is  necessary,  loss  of  vitality  from  drying  is  slight,  the 
tendency  to  mold  is  minimized  and  packing  the  roots  with 
damp  material  or  spraying  with  water  less. 

372.  Spraying  nursery  stock  is  as  necessary  as  is  spray- 
ing of  fruit  trees.     Most  of  the  fungous  troubles  and  insect 
enemies  that  attack  the  same  kinds  of  trees  in  the  orchard 
may  be  expected,  so  the  same  preventives  and  remedies 
should  be  employed.     Power  sprayers  are  made  specially 
for  nursery  work.     One  of  these  is  shown  in  Fig.  209. 

373.  Fumigation  house. — For  nursery  use  the  fumiga- 
tion house  should  be  a  permanent  structure  of  wood,  con- 
crete or  brick,  lined  with  gas-tight  material  and  located 
some  distance  from  dwelling  houses  and  live  stock  quar- 
ters.    It  should  be  used  for  no  other  purpose,  and  its 
gas-holding  capacity  should  be  tested  at  least  once  every 
six  months.     Preferably  it  should  have  doors  on  oppo- 
site sides,  so  wagons  may  be  driven  in  (Fig.  210),  fumi- 
gated without  unloading,  and  hauled  out  after  the  opera- 
tion, thus  effecting  a  saving  of  work  and  of  time.     Pref- 
erably one  of  the  doors  should  face  the  prevailing  wind, 
so  the  breeze  will  remove  the  gas  quickly.     The  doors 
on  the  lee  side  should  be  opened  first,  to  reduce  the  rush 
of  gas  that  would  occur  in  the  reverse  case.     As  a  further 
precaution  the  means  of  opening  should  be  well  to  one 
'side  of  the  door  opening,  so  men  will  not  have  to  expose 
themselves  to  the  gas. 

374.  Fumigating  cions  may  be  the  means  of  preventing 
insect  troubles  on  nursery  stock.     An  air-tight  box,  3  feet 
long,  2  wide  and  2l/2  high,  contains  12^  cubic  feet,  for 
which  y%  ounce  of  98  per  cent  cyanide  of  potassium,  3 
ounces  sulphuric  acid  and  3  ounces  water  will  be  suffi- 
cient for  a  single  charge.     The  box  should  be  made  of 
heavy  and  wide  matched  stuff  and  be  battened  at  all 
corners.     Every  crack  must  be  plugged  tight  with  white 
lead.     The  lid,  which  should  have  at  least  two  cleats  in- 


278  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

side,  should  fit  snugly  upon  strips  of  live  rubber  one  inch 
wide  and  one-fourth  of  an  inch  thick  and  provided  with  a 
hasp  for  padlocking  when  closed. 

In  one  of  the  front  corners  a  metal  tube  two  to  three 
inches  in  diameter  and  18  inches  long  should  be  fastened, 
so  it  cannot  shift  its  position  and  so  its  upper  end  will  be. 
say  one-quarter  or  one-half  inch  below  the  lid  when 
closed.  Through  this  the  charge  of  cyanide  is  to  be 
dropped  in  the  glass  or  crockery  vessel  containing  the 
acid  and  water  placed  just  before  the  box  is  closed  and 
locked.  To  do  this  a  short  glass  tube  containing  the 
charge  and  closed  at  one  end  with  paper  or  muslin  tied 
over  it  is  lowered  by  means  of  a  string  through  a  hole 
in  the  lid  and  the  metal  pipe  already  mentioned.  When 
it  reaches  the  liquid  the  hole  in  the  cover  is  plugged  tight 
with  (preferably)  a  rubber  cork.  To  prevent  loss,  this 
plug  should  be  fastened  with  a  string  to  the  lid. 

On  both  bottom  and  sides  of  the  box,  cleats  one-half  or 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  thick,  four  to  six  inches  long  and, 
say,  six  inches  apart,  should  be  placed  "broken  jointed," 
with  spaces  of  one  .to  two  inches  between  their  ends,  so 
the  cuttings  will  be  separated  a  little  from  the  box  walls, 
and  so  the  gas  will  have  free  circulation  around  the  sides, 
top  and  bottom.  The  cions  should  be  laid  in  loosely — 
never  packed  snugly.  One  or  two  racks  made  of  the 
cleat  stuff  may  be  placed  between  layers  of  cuttings 
when  the  box  must  be  filled  very  full. 

All  cions  must  be  dry  before  being  placed  in  the  box, 
otherwise  they  may  be  damaged.  Forty-five  minutes  is 
long  enough  to  do  the  work.  Then  the  lid  may  be  lifted, 
the  cions  allowed  to  air  for,  say,  30  minutes  (less  if  a 
strong  breeze  is  blowing),  and  finally  washed  in  water. 
Avoid  inhaling  the  gas ;  it  is  deadly. 

375.  Greenhouse  fumigation  experiments  have  been 
conducted  in  rose  and  carnation  houses  at  the  New  Jersey 
station  with  98  per  cent  potassium  cyanide  at  the  rate  of 
five-eighths  ounce  to  1,000  cubic  feet.  The  tempera- 


NURSERY   MANAGEMENT 


279 


tures  in  the  rose  houses  varied  from  62  to  90 ;  in  the  car- 
nation houses  54  to  60.  The  length  of  fumigation  was 
16  to  17  minutes.  Good  results  in  destroying  aphis  were 
always  secured  in  the  rose  houses,  though  sometimes 
the  foliage  was  slightly  injured ;  in  the  carnation  houses, 
many  aphis  lived  through  the  fumigation.  Later  experi- 
ments showed  that  fumigation  for  green  aphis  on  carna- 
tions is  not  likely  to  prove  successful  at  temperatures 
below  60  unless  the  three-fourths  ounce  of  cyanide  is 
used  to  1,000  cubic  feet  and  the  time  of  fumigation  in- 
creased to  30  minutes  ;  perhaps  not  even  then. 

376.  Nursery  tree  trimming. — Stockiness  is  one  of  the 
main  points  nurserymen  aim  to  secure  in  their  trees.  To 
obtain  this  they  give  the  trees  plenty  of  space,  usually 
not  less  than  nine  inches  in  rows  three  feet  apart  for 
small  trees,  and  12  inches  and  3^  to  4  feet  for  large 
kinds  which  are  to  remain  in  the  rows  not  over  two 
years.  Greater  space  is  usually  needed  for  longer 
periods.  The  first  year  the  leaves  should  not  be  rubbed 
from  the  tree  stems,  or  the  trees  will  grow  too  slender 
and  too  tall.  Should  branching  start  too  low,  or  should 
there  be  Y-crotches,  trimming  will  be  needed.  By  fall 
of  the  first  year  stock  budded  in  the  North  the  previous 
summer  and  that  started  from  root  grafts  in  the  spring, 
should  be  four  or  more  feet  tall.  That  budded  in  the 
South  in  June  should  be  as  tall  or  taller. 

In  the  spring  the  height  is  usually  reduced  to  three  or 
four  feet  to  form  the  head.  Some  nurserymen  head  as 
low  as  2  feet,  or  even  18  inches,  to  meet  the  increasing 
demand  for  low-headed  trees.  Shortly  after  heading 
back  the  earth  is  hoed  away  from  the  trunk  bases  and  all 
sprouts  from  crowns  and  roots  cut  off.  The  leaves  that 
appear  on  trunks  and  branches  should  not  be  removed, 
because  they  are  needed  to  ripen  and  develop  the  ad- 
jacent wood  and  to  help  supply  the  roots  with  plant  food. 
The  practice  of  rubbing  them  off  early  in  the  season  can- 
not be  too  strongly  condemned.  Trees  deprived  of  these 


28O  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

leaves  are  forced  to  develop  other  leaves  higher  up,  thus 
tending-  to  make  top-heavy,  weak,  spindling  trunks. 

Cutting  off  undesirable  shoots  on  the  trunk  shortly 
after  midsummer  is  a  very  different  thing.  By  that  time 
they  will  have  fulfilled  at  least  a  large  part  of  their  func- 
tion and  can  thus  be  spared  with  less  disadvantage  to  the 
appearance  and  the  well-being  of  the  trees.  Moreover, 
their  removal  at  that  time  will  not  usually  force  extra  top 
growth,  because  the  trees  will  be  busy  ripening  up  the 
wood  they  formed  quickly  in  the  first  half  of  the  season 
when  moisture  was  more  abundant  in  the  soil  and  condi- 
tions better  favored  quick  development  of  wood. 

If  the  cuts,  in  removing  the  undesirable  twigs  men- 
tioned, are  made  with  a  sharp  knife  close  to  the  trunk, 
they  will  heal  over  by  October.  When  the  cutting  is 
over  the  fewest  number  of  leaves  on  trunk  and  branches 
should  be  sacrificed. 

377.  Cost  of  nursery  stock. — Prices  of  nursery  stock 
vary  almost  as  greatly  as  do  the  catalogs.     Cultivation, 
fertilization,  spraying,  trimming,  training,  root  pruning, 
method  of  digging  and  packing,  age  and  size  of  tree,  and 
a  dozen  other  factors  influence  price.     The  cost  of  speci- 
mens should  always  be  reckoned  on  the  basis  of  quality. 
Often  a  high-priced  tree  is  cheap  at  its  price,  and  often  a 
low-priced  tree  is  expensive  even  as  a  gift.     The  initial 
cost  is  in  most  cases  a  mere  trifle  when  compared  to  the 
after  value  of  the  specimen  as  a  producer  of  fruit  or 
beauty.     Far  better  estimate   the   nurseryman   and  his 
business  methods  than  compare  or  contrast  his  prices 
with  those  of  his  competitors.     Such  factors  as  trueness 
to  name,  plumpness  and  quantity  of  roots,  and  thorough- 
ness of  packing  are  beyond  price. 

378.  Buying  and  handling  nursery  SIOCK.* — In  ordering 
one  should  emphasize  especially  the  necessity  of  trees 
being  true  to  name,  thoroughly  healthy,  properly  mature, 
and  full  of  life.     By  the  last  is  meant  they  should  be  dor- 

*Synopsis  of  article  in  Pennsylvania  Station  Bulletin  by  J.  P.  Stewart. 


NURSERY   MANAGEMENT 


28l 


mant  but  in  strong,  living  condition  when  received  by  the 
grower,  not  shriveled  or  discolored,  nor  show  other  evi- 
dence of  premature  or  improper  handling.  [Straight 
stock  is  specially  desirable.]  The  union  of  graft  or  bud 
should  be  good,  and  the  roots  should  be  free  from  all  evi- 
dence of  woolly  aphis  [San  Jose  scale],  crown-gall  or 
hairy  root  disease.  The  particular  form  of  propagation 
— whether  whole  or  piece-root  (282) — is  immaterial  so  far 
as  orchard  growth  is  concerned,  also  the  region  in  which 
the  tree  is  produced,  so  long  as  the  tree  is  sound  and  of 
the  right  variety  for  the  locality  involved. 

One-year-old  trees  of  good 
size  C4  to  6  feet  tall],  neither 
stunted  nor  overgrown,  are 
usually  best.  Never  should  they 
be  older  than  two  years  from 
bud  or  graft.  The  advantages 
are  that  one-year  trees  usually 
cost  less  to  buy,  to  ship  and  to 
plant,  are  more  readily  shipped 
and  transplanted,  those  fit  for 
sale  are  sure  to  be  strong  grow- 
ers, and  their  heads  can  be 
formed  as  desired.  If  older 
trees  are  preferred,  however, 
their  limbs  should  be  properly 

separated,  well  distributed  FIG.  21  I-APPLE  TREE  GRADES 
around  the  trunk  and  located  xxx,  at  left;  xx,  middle,  x 
approximately  at  desired  heights.  $£*£  ™°  S5?tA  P«S'- 

It   is    best     to     deal     direct    mercial  er°wers- 
with  responsible  nurseries  and 

to  order  early,  submitting  requirements  to  several  firms 
for  bids.  The  trees  may  be  held  at  the  nursery,  subject 
to  order  at  planting  time.  Where  winters  are  not  too  se- 
vere, fall  planting  is  advisable,  otherwise  plant  in  spring 
as  soon  as  the  ground  is  fit,  though  it  may  be  done  later 
if  the  trees  are  kept  satisfactorily  dormant.  When  re- 


282  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

ceived  the  trees  should  be  examined  and  heeled-in 
at  once.  Roots  should  be  shortened  back  to  6  or  8 
inches  and  those  broken  or  bruised  removed  with  a 
smooth  cut  above  the  place  of  injury.  This  pruning  is 
often  done  before  heeling-in.  (Figs.  149,  169.) 

The  heeling-in  may  be  done  [on  a  large  scale]  by  plow- 
ing two  or  more  deep  furrows,  preferably  east  and  west, 
so  the  trees  can  be  leaned  south  or  southwest,  at  an  angle 
of  30  to  40  degrees,  thus  to  escape  sun  scald.  They 
should  be  completely  unpacked,  all  straw  and  other  ma- 
terial likely  to  attract  mice  removed,  and  then  be  laid 
along  the  furrow  in  a  single  row  or  layer.  The  roots  and 
a  third  or  more  of  the  tops  should  be  covered  immediately 
with  earth,  which  must  be  packed  thoroughly  around  the 
roots.  This  covering  may  be  done  at  least  partly  with 
the  plow.  Successive  layers  may  be  laid  when  needed. 
The  place  should  be  well  drained.  Where  there  is  likely 
to  be  damage  from  mice,  the  whole  area  should  be  sur- 
rounded with  furrows  or  ridges  of  earth. 

379.  Tree  grades. — It  is  greatly  to  be  regretted  that 
the  public  considers  mere  straightness,  girth  and  good 
appearance  the  indices  of  nursery  tree  quality,  because 
this  has  largely  helped  to  eliminate  many  of  the  best  va- 
rieties of  fruit  from  the  nurserymen's  lists,  their  places 
being  taken  by  varieties  that  normally  grow  straight.  Of 
course,  the  difficulty  of  cultivating  and  handling  sprawl- 
ing and  crooked  trees  has  also  helped.  No  economical 
amount  of  care  will  make  such  varieties  as  Rhode  Island 
Greening  and  Canada  Red  apples  or  Winter  Nelis  pears 
assume  the  straight  and  narrow  form  that  Baldwin, 
Northern  Spy  and  many  other  varieties  assume  with  min- 
imum attention. 

Again,  the  demand  has  been  for  large  trees,  because  of 
the  belief  that  bearing  will  come  earlier  than  with  small 
ones.  Unless  trees  have  been  transplanted  or  root 
pruned  in  the  nursery,  this  is  usually  an  error,  mainly 
because  of  unavoidable  root  losses  in  digging.  It  is  only 


NURSERY   MANAGEMENT 


283 


human  nature,  then,  that  the  nurserymen  grow  and  sell 
what  the  public  demands — size  and  looks  first  rather  than 
vigor,  health  and  form  characteristic  of  the  variety,  as 
well  as  trueness  to  name. 

Needless  to  say,  a  first-class  tree  should  be  true  to 
name,  well  grown,  mature,  old  enough  but  not  too  old 
for  planting,  have  a  perfectly  healed  union  of  stock  and 
cion   or  bud   and  have  smooth,   clean,   bark  free   from 
blemishes  and  disease,  have  a  strong,  stout  trunk  and  good 
roots  characteristic  of  the  variety  and  also  free  from  dis- 
ease and  insect  injury.     The  leaves  should  have  been 
allowed  to  fall  naturally,  not  be 
stripped  off  to   "hasten     ripen- 
ing."  They  are  needed   to  ma- 
ture the  wood.     The   tree   will 
drop  them  at  the  proper    time. 
Mere  height  is  not  alone  a  rec- 
ommendation ;      far      better      a 
rather  short  stocky  tree  with  nu- 
merous branches  well  placed  low 
down  on  the  trunk.     Those  not 
needed  can  be  easily  cut  out,  but 
if  not  present  new  ones  may  be 
hard     to     get     where     wanted. 
Young,  rather  than  old  trees,  as 
a  rule,  will  give  better  results 
in   customers'   hands   and     thus 
establish   good   feeling     toward 
the    nurserymen.    Very    slender 
trees    are    usually    undesirable. 
Nursery    trees    are     universally 
measured  by  height  and  diame-      Left,  xxx,  s  to  7  feet;  Middle, 
ter  (caliper),  about  two  inches    ?0x54f?et.to  6 
above  the  bud  or  crown.  Both 
dimensions  vary  with  amount  and  character  of  trimming. 

380.   Standardization   of   nursery   stock   grades. — The 
following  standard  of  grades  of  nursery  stock,  made  of- 


FIG.  212— SOUR   CHERRY 
TREES 


284  PLANT     PROPAGATION 

ficial  by  the  American  Association  of  Nurserymen,  pre- 
supposes that  all  grades  of  trees  shall  be  of  fair  shape, 
branched,  and  well  rooted ;  that  caliper  measurements 
shall  be  taken  two  inches  above  the  crown  or  the  bud ; 
that  some  exceptions  may  be  made  on  such  varieties  as 
are  known  to  the  trade  to  be  light  growers  (for  instance, 
Yellow  Transparent  and  Duchess  apples,  Seckel  pears, 
English  Morello  cherries,  etc.),  or  due  to  weather  condi- 
tions which  may  affect  tree  growth,  but  that  such  excep- 
tions shall  be  noted  in  the  printed  price  list  or  the  corre- 
spondence of  the  grower's  sales. 

STANDARDIZATION  OF  GRADES 


Kind 

Inch 

Feet  (" 

and  up") 

Apple 

11-16 

and  up 

5 

Apple 

% 

to   11-16 

4 

Apple 
Apple 

1 

to  % 
to  % 

t  whips 

included 

Cherry 

and  up 

Cherry 
Cherry 

9 

S8 

4 
3 

Cherry 

% 

to  % 

2% 

Standard  pear 

% 

and  up 

5 

Standard  pear 

%T 

to   % 

4 

Standard  pear 

•/4 

to   % 

3^4 

tandard  pear 

% 

to  % 

3 

Dwarf  pear 

% 

and  up 

3 

Dwarf  pear 

% 

to   % 

3 

Dwarf  pear 

fa 

to  % 

2% 

Dwarf  pear 

% 

to  % 

2 

Two-year  plum 

3/ 

and  up 

5 

Two-year  plum 

% 

to   % 

4 

Two-year  plum 

•LL 

to  % 

3% 

Two-year  plum 
One-year  peach,  plum,  apricot 

11-16 

to  % 
and  up 

3 

5 

One-year  peach,  plum,  apricot 

9-16 

to  11-16 

4, 

One-year  peach,  plum,  apricot 
One-year  peach,  plum,  apricot 

7-16 
5-16 

to     9-16 
to     7-16 

2  ft.  5  in. 

381.  In  packing  plants  for  shipment,  care  must  be  taken 
to  prevent  drying  out,  heating,  freezing  and  breakage 
during  transit.  For  economy's  sake,  packages  should  be 
light  and  strong  and  the  packing  material  light,  cheap  and 
respectively  retentive  of  moisture  or  capable  of  resisting 
wet  for  plants  which  demand  one  or  the  other.  For  mail 
shipments,  the  most  popular  materials  include  sphagnum 
or  chaff,  oiled  or  paraffined  paper,  express  paper,  stout 
twine,  pot  and  tree  labels,  shipping  tags,  cardboard,  cor- 


NURSERY  MANAGEMENT  285 

rugated  paper  and  light  wooden  boxes.  For  express  and 
freight,  all  the  above  list  may  be  included,  also  burlap, 
baskets,  crates,  heavy  wrapping  paper,  excelsior,  straw, 
cord,  rope  and  packing  cases,  the  largest  preferably  iron 
bound  or  battened. 

To  save  postage,  as  little  moist  packing  as  possible 
must  be  used.  This  must  not  be  wet,  or  the  package  will 
be  refused  by  the  post  office.  Legal  weights  of  mail 
packages  must  not  be  exceeded.  The  roots  must  be 
washed  free  of  earth,  straightened,  laid  close  together, 
tops  all  pointing  one  way  to  form  bundles  of  three  or 
four  inches  in  diameter.  They  must  be  covered  with  one- 
half  inch  of  damp  moss  and  wrapped  first  in  oiled  or 
paraffined  paper,  with  the  tops  loose  but  the  roots  snugly 
wrapped.  By  rolling  the  bundle  diagonally  and  turning 
in  the  corner  of  the  paper,  tying  may  be  avoided.  To 
finish,  the  bundle  should  be  wrapped  completely  in  manila 
paper;  tied  securely  around  center  once  or  twice  and 
across  the  ends,  the  address  written  on  the  package  and 
also  on  a  shipping  tag,  fastened  preferably  where  the 
strings  cross. 

For  basket  and  crate  packing  in  warm  weather,  the 
plants  are  left  with  their  tops  visible  in  the  bundles  made 
as  above  and  stood  upright  on  excelsior,  which  is  also 
packed  around  the  sides.  Burlap  or  cotton  cloth  is  used 
to  protect  the  bundles  in  baskets ;  battens  serve  the  same 
purpose  in  crates.  In  cold  weather  the  packing  is  in- 
creased and  the  tops  covered  completely. 

Heavy  shipments  are  packed  in  large  boxes,  the  larger 
trees  in  two  or  three  inches  of  damp  cut  straw  or  similar 
material  and  fastened  in  place  with  battens  nailed 
through  the  sides.  Small  trees,  shrubs  and  berry  plants, 
are  placed  in  their  order  of  size  till  the  box  is  full,  packing 
and  battens  being  used  as  necessary  to  fill  the  box  solid 
full,  so  there  will  be  no  shifting  in  transit.  After  the 
cover  is  nailed  on  it  should  be  marked  "TOP"  in  large 
letters  and  the  address  painted  or  inked  on  with  a  brush. 


PLANT     PROPAGATION 


Trees  and  plants  so  handled  may  be  shipped  thousands  of 
miles  with  confidence  that  they  will  arrive  in  good  con- 
dition and  give  satisfaction  to  buyers. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
LAWS  AFFECTING  NURSERY  STOCK 

382.  Enactments,  general. — During  recent  years,  laws 
have  been  passed  by  various  countries  and  states  regu- 
lating- the  sale  and  shipment  of  nursery  stock,  which  must 
be  inspected  and  certified  by  a  duly  authorized  officer. 
The  United  States,  the  48  states  individually,  and  Can- 
ada, have  such  laws ;  but,  because  these  differ  more  or 
less,  nurserymen's  associations  have  recently  been  work- 
ing  in   conjunction   with   the   American   Association   of 
Economic  Entomologists  to  secure  the  passage  of  a  uni- 
form law  for  the  United  States  and  Canada  and  for  the 
various   states.     At   the   present  writing,   though   much 
progress  has  been  made,  the  campaign  is  only  well  begun. 
A  synopsis  of  the  present  operative  laws  of  the  United 
States  and  of  Pennsylvania  follow : 

383.  United  States  nursery  stock  law. — Whoever  plans 
importing  nursery  stock  from  a  foreign  country  should 
first   secure    a   permit   from   the    Federal    Horticultural 
Board  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
at  Washington,  D.  C.     A  broker  or  a  commission  mer- 
chant may  take  out  a  permit  in  his  own  name  or  act  as 
agent  for  the  actual  purchaser.     The  importer  must  see 
that  each  package  on  arrival  at  the  port  of  entry  bears 
the  proper  certificate  of  foreign  inspection  and  also  see 
that  each  is  marked  in  accordance  with  the  law  (Sections 
3  and  4).     On  arrival  of  the  stock,  and  before  unpacking 
or  re-shipping,   the   Secretary  of  Agriculture    and    the 
proper  state  inspectors  must  be  notified  (Section  2,  regu- 
lation 8)  and  given  proper  data.     The  Federal  board  will 
supply  pamphlets  covering  all  cases. 

384.  Nursery  stock  by  mail  from  foreign  countries  (in- 
cluding florists'  stock,  cuttings,  grafts,  cions,  buds,  bulbs, 


288 


PLANT     PROPAGATION 


1? 
Si 


E 

S! 


LAWS  AFFECTING   NURSERY    STOCK  289 

roots  which  may  carry  plant  pests)  may  be  admitted  to 
the  mails  only  when  certified  by  the  state  or  government 
inspector  to  the  effect  that  the  forwarding  nursery  has 
been  inspected  within  the  year  and  has  been  found  free 
from  injurious  insects.  The  only  exceptions  to  this  rul- 
ing are  shipments  to  the  Office  of  Seed  and  Plant  Intro- 
duction at  Washington. 

384.  In  Pennsylvania  nurseries  must  be  inspected  an- 
nually or  oftener.  No  nurseryman,  agent,  broker  or 
dealer  may  legally  sell  or  ship  stock  without  inspection 
certificate.  Fumigation  certificates  must  accompany 
shipments  from  other  states.  The  word  "fumigated" 
stamped  or  stenciled  on  a  certificate  of  inspection  is  not 
enough  per  se;  it  must  be  part  of  the  certificate  granted. 
Nurserymen  in  other  states  must  file  affidavits  on  blanks, 
supplied  by  the  State  Economic  Entomologist  at  Harris- 
burg,  that  their  stock  shipped  into  Pennsylvania  will  be 
properly  fumigated  before  shipment.  Dealers  in  nursery 
stock  will  be  granted  certificates  upon  filing  statements 
that  they  will  buy  such  stock  only  from  growers  and 
nurserymen  who  hold  valid  certificates  of  inspection. 
Transportation  companies  must  reject  uncertified  stock 
from  out-state  points. 

386.  Uniform  nursery  inspection  legislation. — In  sub- 
stance the  bill  favored  by  the  American  Association  of 
Nurserymen  and  the  American  Association  of  Economic 
Entomologists  provides  for  a  horticultural  inspection 
board  of  three  or  five  members  in  each  state ;  for  the  ap- 
pointment of  these  members,  at  least  one  of  whom  shall 
l>e  an  active  grower  of  nursery  stock ;  defines  the  terms 
"nurseryman,"  "nursery,"  "nursery  stock,"  "dealer"  and 
"agent";  designates  the  control  of  inspection  matters, 
treatment  of  diseases  in  nurseries  or  other  localities ; 
authors'  appointment  of  deputy  inspectors,  all  working 
under  the  direction  and  control  of  the  board,  in  which  the 
nurseryman  will  have  a  voice ;  provides  for  a  bond  to  be 
filed  by  the  inspector  to  cover  both  acts  and  omissions  of 


290  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

inspector  and  deputy  and  so  conditioned  that  if  the 
nurseryman  suffers  loss  by  reason  of  an  unjustifiable  act 
of  inspector  or  deputy,  and  secures  a  court  judgment,  he 
may  get  his  money  by  collecting  on  the  judgment  against 
the  bond ;  prescribes  the  usual  duties  of  inspectors ;  pro- 
vides for  inspection  of  nurseries  and  the  usual  certificates 
and  for  appeals  to  the  board  itself  should  anyone  feel 
aggrieved  at  the  acts  of  the  inspector. 

It  has  been  the  idea  to  incorporate  in  this  law  enough 
rules  and  regulations  to  bring  enforcement  as  near  as 
possible  on  a  uniform  basis  in  the  various  states,  and 
leave  no  more  than  necessary  to  the  discretion  of  the 
local  state  officials. 

387.  Diseases    of    nursery    stock.— Nursery    stock,   particularly 
pears,  cherries,  plums  and  apples,  is  especially  subject  to  fungous  dis- 
eases producing  (1)  in  the  case  of  seedlings,  ripened  wood,  so  buds 
cannot  be  inserted,   or  an  imperfect  union  of  bud  and  stock  and 
(2)  a  stunted  development  due  to  the  annual  early  loss  or  drying 
up  of  the  leaves.     These  diseases  can  be  prevented  by  fungicides — 
bordeaux  especially.     It  costs  about  25  cents  a  1,000  for  one-year 
and   two-year  trees,  'and   35   to   40   cents   for  three-year  trees,   or 
85  cents  to  $1.00  for  the  three  years  for  1,000,  or  one-tenth  cent 
each. 

388.  Damages  from  tree  sales. — In  New  York  a  new 
law  details  causes  for  court  action  to  secure  damages  for 
trees  improperly  named.     Such   damages    may    be    re- 
covered in  civil  action  by  the  purchaser  of  fruit-bearing 
trees  at  any  time  prior  to  the  third  bearing  year,  provided 
the  purchaser  notifies  the  seller  as  soon  as  he  has  reason 
to  believe  the  trees   untruly  named.     The   seller   shall 
have  the  burden  of  proof  in  establishing  his  claim  that 
any  contract  or  part  thereof  exempting  him  from  liability 
or  limiting  his  liability  was  agreed  to  by  the  purchaser. 
In  every  case  of  sale  of  lots  of  25  or  more  trees,  the  seller 
must  at  once  furnish  the  purchaser  a  copy  of  the  contract, 
which  shall  bear  a  specially  worded  statement,  embodying 
the  above  ideas  as  to  action  to  recover  damages.     The 
seller  must  also  supply  the  purchaser  with  an  itemized 
list  of  the  shipment,  giving  name  of  county,  state  where 


LAWS  AFFECTING   NURSERY    STOCK  29! 

the  trees  listed  were  grown,  age  of  trees,  name  and  ad- 
dress of  person  for  whom  grown,  if  requested  by  letter  or 
in  writing  on  the  contract  by  the  purchaser  at  time  of 
purchase.  Within  five  days  after  receipt  by  the  pur- 
chaser of  the  trees  and  the  list  thereof  the  purchaser  shall 
compare  and  notify  the  seller  of  any  discrepancy  between 
the  list  and  the  labels  on  such  trees. 


SUGGESTED  PRACTICUMS 

GENERAL  HINTS 

Student^  should  be  required  to  keep  notes  on  each  exercise,  a 
separate  sheet  being  devoted  to  each  practicum. 

Sketches,  whenever  possible,  should  be  called  for  and  marked  ac- 
cording to  the  story  they  tell  rather  than  to  any  art  they  reveal. 

In  many  cases  several  drawings  will  be  needed  to  show  the  various 
stages  of  development.  Students  should,  therefore,  leave  ample  space 
beside  the  first  sketch,  so  all  may  be  placed  together. 

Where  time  will  permit,  contests  will  be  found  to  stimulate  interest 
in  the  work.  Such  should  be  easy  to  arrange  in  making  cuttings  of  a 
certain  kind  of  plant,  in  potting,  making  root  grafts,  in  budding,  etc. 
The  main  points  that  count  in  such  contests,  are  accuracy,  neatness, 
speed,  number  of  plants  growing  at  a  stated  time. 

In  making  notes  of  work  done,  tabular  forms  will  be  found  help- 
ful and  concise.  For  instance,  with  cuttings  the  following  plan  is  sug- 
gested by  Dr.  W.  L.  Howard  of  the  University  of  Missouri : 

RECORD  OF  CUTTINGS 


Name 

1 

"  I 

QS 

| 

oS 

Is 

all 

Qtf 

| 

68 
SCrf 

.2S 
g| 

£ 

G{*« 

Remarks 

Geranium 

Coleus 

SEEDAGE 

1.  Sterilising  soil. — Secure   surface  soil    from   several  places  where 
weeds  have  been  seeding  freely — fence  corners,  neglected  barnyards,  etc. 
Add  fine  sweepings  of  a  barn  floor  to  get  more  seeds.     Also  add  sour 
and  moldy  soil,  from  the  greenhouse  so  as  to  get  damping  off  fungi,  etc. 
Mix  thoroughly  and  sift  out  debris.     Moisten  as  if  for  potting  and  turn 
over  once  daily  for  a  week  or  more  to  give  seeds  a  chance  to  absorb 
moisture.  •  Divide  into  two   or   more  lots,  one  to  be  steamed,   another 
baked,  a  third  treated  with  formalin,  others  to  be  treated  in  two  or  more 
of  these  ways  but  one   left   without  treatment.     Provide  each   student 
with  at  least  two  seed  pans,  one  to  contain  untreated  soil,  the  others  each 
a  sample  of  soil  treated  in  one  or  more  of  the  ways  suggested.     Label 
the  seed  pans,  place  in  a  warm  greenhouse  and  note  the  results  at  stated 
intervals  for  say  a  month.     The  notes  taken  may  be  marked  as  in  an 
examination. 

2.  Botanical     classification. — Examine     a     considerable     number    of 
species  of  seeds  to  determine  which  belong  to  monocots,  dicots  and  poly- 


SUGGESTED  PRACTICUMS  2Q3 

cots.  Among  the  best  are:  Alfalfa,  asparagus,  barley,  beans,  beets, 
broom  corn,  buckwheat,  cabbage,  canna,  castor  bean,  clover,  corn,  cow- 
pea,  cucumber,  eggplant,  endive,  fennel,  leek,  lettuce,  millet,  morning 
glory,  mustard,  nasturtium,  oat,  okra,  onion,  parsnip,  pea,  peanut,  pepper, 
peppergrass,  pine,  pumpkin,  radish,  rhubarb,  rye,  sage,  salsify,  spinach, 
spruce,  sunflower,  tobacco,  tomato,  turnip,  wheat.  Weed  seeds  may 
well  be  included  also. 

Most  of  these  will  have  to  be  soaked  or  even  germinated  before 
they  can  be  handled  satisfactorily.  The  idea  should  be  so  to  familiarize 
the  student  with  the  truly  named  seeds  that  he  can  identify  the  various 
kinds  in  mixtures  of  say  50  species — this  as  an  examination. 

3.  Germination    test. — Select   50    or   preferably    100   seeds   from   any 
convenient   number   of    species   of   seed ;    place   in    a   seed   tester   or   in 
soil  for  sprouting;   note  the  rate,  date,  number  and   strength   of  those 
that  sprout  in  given  times  and  estimate  the  \alue  of  the  seed  upon  the 
basis  of  price  and  percentages  of  strong  and  weak  seeds.      (The  same 
seeds  used  in  this  practicum  may  be  also  made  to  serve  in  other  prac- 
ticums  if  desired.) 

4.  Germination   studies. — Note,    1,    the   length   of   time   required   by 
seeds    of   various    kinds    to    sprout    in    a    seed   tester   or   preferably    in 
baked   or  steamed  soil.     2,  Note  the  appearance   of  the  seedling,   what 
it  does  with  its  seed  coats,  its  cotyledons,  whether  the  cotyledons  func- 
tion  as  true   leaves   or   only   as   storage   organs,   length   of   time   before 
true  leaves  are  developed.     As   an   examination,   seedlings  of  any  con- 
venient number  of  species  may  be  placed  before  each  student  for  iden- 
tification.    No   "catches"   should   be   included.     For   instance,   should  a 
student  identify   "collard"  or  "cauliflower"  as  "cabbage,"  he  should  be 
marked  perfect,  because  both  seeds  and  young  seedlings  of  such  are  so 
closely  alike  that  no   one   can  distinguish  one   from  the  other. 

5.  Accelerating  germination. — Divide  a  definite  number  of  seeds  into 
two  equal   lots  and  plant  one   treated    (as  below),  the   other  untreated, 
side  by  side  for  comparison  of  rates  of  germination.     A.   Soak  in  water 
— bean,  pea,  corn,  radish,  cabbage,  beet,  cucumber,  pumpkin,  wheat,  oat, 
parsnip,  carrot,  spinach,  tomato,  sunflower.     B.  Immerse  in  five  or  six 
times   their   volume   of   strong   sulphuric   acid   in    a   test   tube   or   wide- 
mouthed    bottle    and    stir    or    shake    till    all    the    seeds    are    wet.     Let 
stand  5  to  20  minutes,  then  wash  in  preferably  running  water  for  fully 
five   minutes.     Plant  at   once.     Kentucky  coffee  tree,   cotton,   honey   lo- 
cust, locust,   Abyssinian  banana,  canna.     C.  Pour  enough  boiling  water 
to  cover,  say,  a  pint  of  seeds  and  allow  the  whole  to  cool  in  a  closed  ves- 
sel.    Select  samples  for  the  class  to  compare  in  germination  with  dry 
seeds    of    the    same    kinds.     D.  File    or    cut    notches    in    canna,    moon 
flower,    Abyssinian    banana,    wild    cucumber,    morning    glory   and    lotus. 
Plant  these   side  by  side   with   untreated   seeds.     E.   Soak   peach,   plum, 
cherry,   walnut,   butternut,  hickory  and  similar  two-valved,  hard-shelled 
seeds  a   few  days ;    freeze   and  thaw  part   of   them   several   times   and 
plant  some  of  each  lot  in  comparison  with  dry  ones. 

6.  Re-germination   of   seeds. — Select    100   or   200   seeds   of,   say,    10 
kinds  of  seeds — wheat,  oats,  peas,  beans,  corn,  radish,  dandelion,  melon, 
onion,  pepper,  spinach,  tomato,  buckwheat,  clover — and  germinate  them. 
When   the   sprouts   are   one-half   to    three-fourths   inch    long,   dry   them 
in  an  airy  drawer  for,  say,  a  week.     Rub  off  the  brittle  sprouts  and  re- 
germinate.     Note    how    rapidly   or   slowly   this    occurs,    also    how    many 
times  it  may  be  done  with  the  various  species. 

7.  Large    vs.   small   seeds. — Count    100    large    and    100   small    seeds 
from  an   unwinnowed   sample   of,   say,  radish,  turnip  or  mustard — the 


294  PLANT    PROPAGATION 

first  preferred — and  sow  them  thinly  in  rows  side  by  side  in  a  green- 
house bed  or  out  of  doors.  Make  careful  notes  to  determine  whether 
or  not  there  are  individual  differences  in  favor  of  one  or  the  other, 
also  whether  one  set  of  differences  might  outweigh  the  other  set  in 
value  to  a  business  grower. 

8.  Pricking  out. — With  small  wooden  dibble,  cut  at  the  end  to  form 
a  V  about  one-eighth  inch  across  and  one-fourth  inch  deep,  lift  seed- 
line's  of  begonia,  mignonette,  pansy,  etc.,  from  the  seed  pans  and  space 
them  about  an  inch  apart  each  way  in  flats  filled  with  loose,  fairly  rich 
soil ;  water,  place  on  greenhouse  bench  and  shade  with  newspaper  a 
few  days. 

.9.  Fill  flats  with  soil.  Use  a  spotting  board  and  a  dibble  to  mark 
holes  one  to  two  inches  apart ;  lift  cabbage,  tomato,  pepper,  eggplant 
or  similar  sturdy  growers  from  their  seed  pans  or  flats  and  prick  them 
in  with  the  dibber,  first  making  a  hole  deep  enough  to  hold  the  roots, 
second  placing  the  plant  in  the  hole,  third,  pressing  the  soil  against  the 
roots  from  bottom  to  top.  When  flats  are  full,  place  on  greenhouse 
bench,  water  and  shade. 

LAYERAGE 

.10.  General  note.— Outdoor  subjects  can  be  treated  only  during  the 
growing  season ;  many  indoor  ones  may  be  used  to  demonstrate  the 
principles. 

11.  Simple    layers. — Compare    rates    of    rooting    of    subjects    whose 
stems  are  twisted,  notched  or  cut  at  the  nodes  with  those  not  so  treated. 
Which  makes  best  plants  in  least  time  with   various   subjects — currant, 
gooseberry,  golden  bell,  mock  orange,  deutzia,  etc.  ? 

12.  Tip    layers. — Bury    and    anchor   black    raspberry    tips    and    dew- 
berry canes  at  various  stages  of  development  and   note  what  stage  is 
necessary  for  securing  new  plants.     Also  bury  some  stems,  as  in  simple 
layering,  to  see  if  they  will   take  root.     How  many  plants  can  be  se- 
cured from  one  cane,  and  in  what  ways? 

13.  Compound   or   serpentine   layers. — Bend    last   year's    canes    of   a 
vine  so  alternate  parts  each  containing  a  node  shall  be  buried  or  in  the 
air.    Wound  the  under  sides  of  the  buried  nodes  on  some  canes,  but  leave 
those    on    others    unhurt.     Note    the    time    required    to    secure    rooted 
plants  by  both  methods.     Vines  to  use :     Grape,  trumpet  and  Virginia 
creepers,  Dutchman's  pipe,  Boston  and  English  ivy,  etc. 

14.  Continuous       layers. — In        shallow       trenches       cover       shrub 
branches    or   vine    canes   completely    except   a    few   joints   at    the    tips. 
Some  may  be  wounded,  as  above  (11),  others  not.     Use  very  light  soiL 
or  a   mixture  of  moss   or   muck   and   soil   in    some   cases,   to   cover  the 
canes  and  compare  with  the  ordinary  soil  of  the  trench.     Snowball,  high 
bush    cranberry,    low-growing   willows,    red    osier    (Cornus  stolonifera). 

15.  Mound     layers. — Have     each     class,     1,     cut     back     bushes     to 
develop   numerous   shoots   for  mound   layering  the    following  year;    2, 
make  mound  layers  of  the  shrubs  cut  back  the  previous  year;  and,  3, 
dig   and    cut    apart   the    rooted    layers    the    next   spring.     Thus,    if   the 
plants  are  in  three  adjacent  rows,  each  class  will  need  only  one  prac- 
ticum   period    of  two    hours   to   cover   the   whole   method,    part   of  the 
time  to  prepare  or  cut  back  the  subjects  in  one  row,  part  to  bury  the 
stems    similarly   produced    in   the    next,    and   part    to    finish    the    work. 
Gooseberry,  Paradise  apple,  quince  and  shrubs  as  above  (14). 

16.  Chinese,    air    or    pot    layers. — Notch,    girdle    or    ring    stems    of 
leggy  or  branchy  plants  in  humid  greenhouse,  bandage  with  a  bunch  of 
wet  sphagnum  in  cotton  cloth  and  keep  moist  till   roots  have   formed 


SUGGESTED  PRACTICUMS  295 

Then  discard  bandage,  cut  stem  close  to  wound,  remove  some  leaves, 
and  plant  in  flower  pot.  Suitable  subjects:  Draczena,  pandanus,  rub- 
ber plant,  croton. 

17.  Runners,     stolons     and     off-sets. — Anchor     rosettes     of     leaves 
produced   by  strawberry,  buckbush,   houseleek,   etc.,   in  soil  outdoors  or 
in    greenhouse    and    sever    from    parent    plant    when    rooted.     Compare 
plants    grown    thus    in    pots    with    those    grown    near-by    in    the    open 
^.'ound  or  on  greenhouse  bench. 

SEPARATION 

18.  Cut    a    bulb    of    each    class    in    half    from    top    to    bottom    and 
jther  from  side  to  side,  each  through  the  center.     Make  drawings  to 

show  formation  of  various  parts.  (Easy  and  cheap  bulbs:  1,  tulip  or 
hyacinth,  2,  tiger  or  Easter  lily,  3,  crocus  or  gladiolus.) 

19.  After    tops    have     died     down     in     spring    and    any    time    until 
midautumn,  dig  up  bulbs  of  any  spring  blooming  bulb.     Note  and  make 
drawings  of  the  way  bulblets  are  produced. 

20.  Do  same  with  various  lily  species. 

21.  In     fall,     when     tops     of     gladiolus,     montbretia,     tigridia,     and 
other  summer  blooming  bulbs  have  turned  yellow,  do  same  thing. 

22.  In    midsummer     collect     bulblets     in     leaf     axils     of    tiger    lily, 
rfiake  cross  and   vertical   sectional  drawings   of  some   and   plant  others 
in  moist  soil  at  various  depths  from  surface  to  three  or  four  inches 
deep.     Note  results. 

23.  Wound  and  handle  bulbs   as  described   (115)    and  note  results. 
(Classes  in   consecutive   years  may  do   various   stages  of  work  as  sug- 
gested under  exercise   in  mound  layering.) 

DIVISION 

24.  In    spring,   dig  up    and   cut   in   pieces   with   spade   large   clumps 
of  rhubarb,  phlox,  iris,  etc. ;  plant  th~e  cut  parts  and  note  results. 

25.  In    fall   dig   up   clumps   of   canna   or   dahlia,   store    in   dry   warm 
quarters  till  late  winter,  then  cut  apart  so  each  piece  will  have  at  least 
one  "eye"  or  bud,  and  plant  in  pots  in  warm  greenhouse. 

26.  From   late   August   to    early    October   dig   up,    divide   and   plant 
peony  clumps. 

27.  In    spring   cut   up   clumps   of   plants   mentioned   in   24,  but  by 
method  given  in  25. 

CUTTINGS 

28.  In  autumn,  after  the  leaves  fall,  make  cuttings  of  mature  wood, 
bury  some  tops  up,  others  tops  down  out  of  doors  and  side  by  side ; 
store  some  in  various  media  (sand,  dust,  moss,  powdered  charcoal)   and 
some   uncovered   in  a   humid,   cold  but  frost-proof  cellar;   make   other 
cuttings   in   spring,   bury   some   butts   up,   other  butts   down   for  two   or 
three  weeks;   plant  all  lots  side  by  side,  previously  having  made  notes 
of  their  condition.     Show  in  tabular  form  the  results  secured  after  six 
weeks  or  two  months'  growth  outdoors.     Choose  both  easy  and  difficult 
subjects;    willow,    alder,    maple,    elder,    currant,    hickory,    apple,    pear, 
quince,   Japanese   plum,    American   plums    of   several   species,    European 
plum,  peach,  poplar,  elm,  catalpa,  gooseberry,  lilac,  grape,  etc. 

29.  Root     cuttings. — In     fall     dig     well-established     blackberry     or 
red    raspberry,    "stool"   at  least   a    foot   from    the    outside   all    around; 
shake  out  earth;  cut  roots  of  one-eighth  to  one-half  inch  in  diameter 


296 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


into  two-inch  lengths;  store  in  green  sawdust  in  cold,  humid  cellar  till 
spring;  then  plant  horizontally  an  inch  deep  in  sand. 

30.  Fill   up   hole   left   in   29;   thrust   spade  full   depth   of  blade  ver- 
tically in  soil  at  intervals  of  six  inches  from  hole  so  as  to  form  circles 
around  the  hole  and  thus  cut  the  roots  that  remain ;  compare  plants  so 
produced  with  those  made  as  in  29. 

31.  Secure    cuttings   as   in   30,   but   after   a    month's   callusing   grow 
in  greenhouse.     Compare  with  plants  of  29  and  30. 

32.  In    spring   root   prune,    but   do    not   remove   "stool,"   by   making 
three  or  four  circles  with  the  spade  around  the  stool  as  in  30.     Note 
results. 

33.  Tuber    cuttings. — Cut     an     Irish     potato     into     pieces    so    each 
piece  will  have  at  least  one  "eye,"  another  a  good  deal  of  flesh,  a  third 
very  little  flesh,  a  fourth  cut  through  the  middle  of  a  good  bud.     Note 
differences  in  plants  produced,  and  if  desired,  in  resulting  crop. 

34.  Cut    a    tuber    from    end    to    end    and    from    side    to    side,    plant 
the  pieces  shallow  in  sand  near  together  and  note  any  differences. 

35.  Plant    one    sweet    potato    whole,    another    cut    in    half    length- 
wise  and   a   third   crosswise    in   warm   greenhouse    or   hotbed,    the    cut 
pieces   cut  side   up   and   down   respectively.     Cover   with   half   inch    of 
sand.     Note   results  and  any  differences. 

36.  Greenwood  cuttings. — Make  "soft  wood"  cuttings  of  any  green- 
house plants  available,  part  cut  at,  part  just  above,  and  part  just  below 
nodes ;  leave  all  leaves  but  the  bottom  ones  on  some  ;  remove  all  but  the 
top  two  or  three  on  others ;  on  still  others,  remove  bottom  ones  and  cut 
back  the  others  fully  two-thirds,  leaving  the  growing  tip  bud  in  each 
case.     Shade   some   with    paper,    leave    some   unshaded.     Vary    the    ex- 
periments otherwise  as  desired  and  note  results. 

37.  Evergreen     cuttings. — In     October     make     cuttings     of     arbor 
vitae  or  spruce   four  or  five  inches  long.     Cut   (don't  pull)    off  foliage 
from  three-fourths  of  the  base,  plant  in  flats  of  sand  immediately  and 
set  away  in  cool  place.     Keep  shaded,  moist,  not  wet.     If  out  of  doors, 
examine  to   see   if  rooted  six  to  twelve  months   from   planting.     If  in- 
doors with  bottom   heat  they  may  root  in  less  than  two   months.     Try 
both  plans  and  decide  which  is  the  better  and  why. 

38.  Mature    wood     cuttings. — In     fall     make     two     and     three    bud 
cuttings    of   grape    from   last   season's    growth.     Bundle    up,    label    and 
bury,    or   store    in    damp   moss,    etc.,   to    callus.     In    spring   plant    some 
obliquely,  some  vertically,  some  with  two  buds  and  some  with  only  one 
bud  showing,  in  a  frame  out  of  doors  or  in  the  open  field.     Note  dif- 
ferences. 

39.  Cut  similar  canes  (38)   an  inch  or  so  on  each  side  of  a  bud  to 
make  single-eye  cuttings  less  than  three  inches  long.     Bury  and  handle 
as  above,  except  that  in  planting  place  some  cuttings  with  the  eye  in 
various  positions  from  horizontal  to  vertical  and  at  varying  depths  in 
the  sand  down  to,  say,  three  inches.     Note  differences. 

40.  Make  heel  and  mallet  cuttings  and  handle  as  in  38. 

41.  Compare  mature  wood  cuttings  of  Americana,  domestica,  Mariana, 
triflora  and  other  species  of  plums.     Which  strike  root  most  easily  ? 

42.  After  making  cuttings  as  in  38,  store  some  under  varying  con- 
ditions of  moisture  and  temperature.     Which   conditions  produce  best 
results  ? 

43.  Plant  some  cuttings   made  as   in   38   in  fall   where  they  are  to 
remain.     Mulch   some,  but  leave   others  bare.     Compare   each   lot  with 
the  other,  and  at  close  of  growing  season  with  plants  produced  by  the 
38  method. 


SUGGESTED  PRACTICUMS  297 

44.  Leaf    cuttings. — Make    leaf    cuttings    of    rex    begonia    by    both 
methods  described   (191). 

45.  Lay    bryophyllum    leaves    flat    on    sand    in    propagating    bench. 
Place  a  little  sand  on  each  to  hold  in  place.     Note  differences  between 
wounded  and  unhurt  leaves. 

46.  Bury    stems    and    one-third    of    gloxinia    leaves    in    propagating 
sand.     Take  up  and  examine  various  specimens  at  intervals  of  a  week 
or  two  until  little  bulbs  are   formed. 

47.  Try  the  same  experiment,  but  with  the  upper  halves  of  leaves. 

48.  Try  similar  experiments  to  those  of  44  with  cabbage  and  lemon 
leaves. 

49.  Plants  produced  by  leaves. — Fasten  a  mature  leaf  of  bryophyllum 
on  the  wall  or  a  post  in  a  humid  greenhouse  and  leave  undisturbed  a 
month  or  six  weeks.     Make  notes  of  what  happens.     Try  other  leaves 
at  the  same  time  in  a  dry  room  and  make  comparative  notes. 

POTTING 

50.  Try    planting    in    wet    pots ;  dirty    pots ;    new,    dry    pots ;    new 
pots  soaked  overnight  but  dried  so  no  water  is  visible  on  them.     Also 
with  soil  so   dry  it  will  pour ;   soil  so  wet  it  will  form  a  clod  in  the 
hand,   and  soil   "just  right." 

51.  B.     Lift    seedlings    with    as    many    roots    as   possible    from    pre- 
viously   watered    flats   and   plant    in    two-inch   pots.     Place    on    one-half 
inch  of  sand  in  greenhouse  bench,  water  and  shade. 

52.  Lift    cuttings    from    propagating    bench    when    they    have    roots, 
preferably  about  one-half  inch  long,  plant  as  in  51. 

53.  Water    a    lot    of    plants    sadly    in    need    of    shifting    from    two- 
inch  pots  to  a  larger  size  several  hours  before,  others  immediately  be- 
fore, and  others  not  until  after  shifting  to  three-inch  pots.     Note  dif- 
ferences in  ease  of  handling  and  results  in  plant  growth.     After  two  to 
four  weeks  make  critical  examination  of  roots  and  soil  in  pots  treated 
each  way.     Describe  findings  and  draw  conclusions. 

54.  Re-plant     some     plants     purposely     allowed     to     become     pot- 
bound ;  1,  by  gently  or  forcibly  breaking  the  soil  and  re-potting;  and  2, 
by  washing  out  the  soil  before  doing  so.     Compare  the  methods. 

GRAFTING 

55.  In    November     or     December     from     correctly     named     bearing 
trees  select  cions  six  to  nine  inches  long,  some  among  the  bearing  parts, 
others    from   water    sprouts    (not   the   suckers).     Store    until   ready    for 
grafting. 

56.  Make    enough    grafting   wax    to    supply    needs    of    class    for    all 
kinds  of  work  during  college  or  school  year. 

57.  In    midwinter    make    some    whole-root,    some    piece-root    grafts, 
using  some  of  each  class  of  cion  wood  in  55.     Store  finished  grafts  till 
spring.     Note    differences    between    the    two    classes    of    wood,    both    in 
grafting  and  in  later  results. 

58.  In  spring  plant  root  grafts  made  in  56. 

59.  In    spring    when    the    buds    begin    to    swell    make    cleft    grafts 
using  some  of  each  class  of  wood  secured  in  55.     Make  examinations  of 
work  each  week   for  at  least  a  month.     Some  of  these  grafts  may  be 
made  at  the  crowns  of  trees  that  failed  to  take  buds  the  previous  year, 
others  among  the  tops  of  trees  in  bearing. 

60.  Similarly  practice  bark  grafting. 


298 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


61.  Similarly  practice  the  notch  method. 

62.  Toward  spring  confine  some  rabbits  or  mice  around  the  trunks  of 
seedling  or  worthless  apple  trees  3  to  10  years  old,  and  if  necessary  by 
withholding  food  force  them  to  girdle  the  trees.     When  the  wounds  are 
large   enough   remove  the   rabbits  and  protect  the  wounds   from   drying 
out  till  the  buds  of  peach  and  other  trees  earlier  than  apple  begin  to 
open,  then  bridge  graft. 

63.  In  the  greenhouse   or  out  of  doors,   practice   inarching  on  any 
convenient  plants. 

64.  Herbaceous  grafting.  —  Select  vigorous,  potato  and  tomato  plants 
of  early  varieties  about  nine  inches  high.     Cut  the  former  stems  square 
across  about  four  inches  above  ground  and  split  them  about  \l/2   inches 
downward.     With  a  sharp  knife  cut  a  four-inch  tomato  cion   from  the 
growing  tip  and  make  its  lower  end  wedge-shape,  to  fit  the  cleft  in  the 
potato  stem.     Tie   snugly   with   raffia   and  wrap  with   damp   sphagnum. 
Shade  a  few  days.     Note  results  weekly  till  the  plant  matures  or  dies. 
Perform  a  similar  operation  with  tomato  as  stock  and  potato  as  cion. 
Make  critical  notes. 

65.  Callusing  of  grafts,  —  Make  grafts   of  various  kinds  —  splice  and 
cleft  at  the  collar,  whip  on  root,  side  on  root  —  and  after  wrapping  or 
waxing   according   to    the    method    employed,    cover   with    two    or   three 
inches  of  moist  sand  on  the  greenhouse  bench.     In  a  week  or  ten  days 
note  what  has  happened  and  make  comparisons.     If  thought  desirable, 
plant  in  five-inch  pots  a  week  or  two  later  and  note  results  still  later. 

66.  Making    and   storing   root   grafts.  —  In    autumn    or    early    winter, 
make  any   convenient   number  of  whole-root  and  piece-root  grafts  ;   tie 
in    bundles  of   one  kind   each  ;   label   with   variety  name,   date   and   stu- 
dent's name,  pack  in  moist  sand  and  store  in  a  cellar  till  spring.     Make 
notes  ;  plant  and  continue  note  taking  as  to  development  and  compar- 
ison as  to  growth. 

BUDDING 

67.  Practice    dormant   budding    in    spring   on    seedling   stocks   grow- 
ing in  nursery  rows  one  or  two  years. 

68.  In  midsummer,   or   somewhat  later,   select  bud  sticks  from  truly 
named  peach  trees  and  shield  bud  in  seedling  stocks  grown  during  the 
same  season. 

69.  In  June   or   early  July  practice   the   same   method   on  apple   or 
cherry  stocks. 

70.  Within    two    weeks    cut    the    raffia    around    all    but    one    or   two 
of  the  best-looking  buds.     Make  examination  of  each  at  intervals  of  a 
week  and  note  results. 

PACKING  PLANTS  FOR  SHIPMENT 

71.  Mail  shipment   of  plants.  —  Place   the  washed  plants   with   their 
roots  parallel  and  together  in  a  close  pile.     Cover  all  around  with,  say, 
one-half  inch  of  sphagnum.     Wrap  with  oiled  paper  and  tie  with  string 
at  each  end.     Cover  with  manila  paper,  tie  with  stout  cord.     Write  ad- 
dress on  package  and  also  on  a  shipping  tag  to  be  fastened  to  the  pack- 
age.    A  test  of  good  packing  is  to  have  the  plants  in  good  condition  a 
week  or  ten  days  later  when  unpacked. 

72.  Packing  express  shipment.  —  Tie  loose  plants  (e.  g.,  cabbage,  to- 
mato)  in  bundles  of  10,  25,  50  or  100>,  so  as  to  be  easily  counted  and 
not  to  be  too  bulky  —  say  four  or  five  inches  in  diameter.     Have  a  little 
wet  moss  in  the  center  of  each  bundle.    If  plants  are  in  pots,  water 


SUGGESTED  PRACTICUMS  2Q9 

freely  an  hour  or  two  before  lifting.  Roll  each  bundle  separately  in 
paper  in  such  a  way  as  to  need  no  tying.  Place  one-inch  layer  of 
damp,  not  wet,  moss  on  bottom  of  proper-sized  basket.  Stand  bundles 
upright  and  close  together  on  moss.  Pack  moss  between  bundle  and 
sides  of  basket.  If  plants  are  short,  cover  with  burlap  sewed  or  tied 
on  ;  if  tall,  draw  tops  together,  cover  around  sides,  leave  open  at  top 
in  warm  weather,  but  in  cold  cover  all.  In  cold  weather  a  closed  box 
is  a  better  package. 

73.  Packing  plants  for  mail  delivery. — Pack  several  kinds  of  plants 
from  three  to  four-inch  pots  to  go  by  mail   (see  Exercise  71).     Place  a 
package  in  each  of,  say,  three  or  four  sets  of  adverse  conditions  likely 
to  be  encountered  in  an  actual  shipment — a  hot,  a  cold,  a  dry,  a  moist 
room— during  a  week.     Then   unpack,   note   results   and   see   how  many 
plants  will  grow  when  planted  under  favorable   conditions. 

74.  Pack  bale  of  trees  or  shrubs  for  freight  or  express. — Select  dor- 
mant trees  or  shrubs  of  various  sizes.     Tie  and  label  each  variety  sep- 
arately.    Dip   roots  of  each  bundle   in   thin  mud.     Lay   large  trees  on 
floor  or  ground  first ;   fit  smaller  ones  in ;  tie  with  binding  twine ;   on 
floor  spread  burlap  big  enough  to  cover  whole  bundle ;  put  wet  chaff, 
sphagnum  or  sawdust  three   inches  deep   where  roots  are  to   be ;  place 
roots  on  this,  draw  up  sides   of  burlap  and  fill  in  more  packing  where 
needed  to  make  three-inch  packing  all  around  roots  ;  sew  together  or  use 
three-inch  nails  as  pins ;  tie  with  rope  or  stout  binder  cord ;  fasten  on 
two  addressed  tags  in  different  parts  of  the  bundle. 

75.  Box  packing  for  cold   weather. — Tie   dormant  trees  as   in  bale 
packing.     Treat   active   plants   as   in   basket  packing.     Line  a  box   with 
two  or  three  thicknesses  of  paper.     Cover  bottom  with  three  inches  of 
moist  chaff  or  sphagnum.     Place  large  tree  bundles  on  bottom,  nail  one- 
inch    boards    through    box    sides    to    hold    trees    from    shifting.     Place 
shrubs  and  fasten  similarly.     Cover  with  two  or  three  inches  of  damp, 
cut  straw.     Lay  in  the  active  plants  previously  wrapped  and  fasten  so 
they    won't    shift    during    shipment.     Fill    two    inches    of   the    top    with 
packing.     Be  sure  to  make  box  contents  feel   solid  with  packing  before 
nailing  on  cover.     If  packing  is  too  wet,  there  is  danger  of  heating. 
It   should   be   merely  moist. 

76.  Heeling-in. — In  a  trench  one  foot  deep  and  wide  and  any  de- 
sired length,  place  fruit  tree  roots,  tops  pointing  obliquely  to  south  side. 
Cover  with   earth   from  the  other  side   of  the  trench  and  pack   firmly. 
Place   other  rows   of   trees,   then   shrubs    and   lastly  berry  plants — even 
strawberries.     Cover  tops  of  trees  and  shrubs  wholly  with  soil.     Stake 
position  of  rows.     Leave  no  material  that  will  serve  for  mouse  nests. 
In  spring  note  results. 


TABLE  I 


ANNUALS  AND  PERENNIALS 
GROWN  FROM  SEED 

CONDENSED  CULTURAL  INSTRUCTIONS 
FOR  FLOWER  SEEDS* 

the    proper   paragraph   in   the    list   which 


Abronia   A 
Abutilon    N 
Acacia    S 
Achillea     V 
Aeroclinium     M 
Adlumia                    G 

aarkia    U 
Clematis    ,V 
Cleome   F 
Clianthus                    0 

Ice  Plant    

A 

Perilla   D 

Impatiens    
Incarvillea    

:uN 

v 

Petunia   D 
Phlox,  annual    F 
"     hardy             V 

Cobsea    D 

Ipomoea    

.F 

v 

Physalis     A 
Pinks,  annual   U 
"       hardy   V 
Platycodon    V 
Polyanthus    C 
Poppy,  annual  P 
"       hardy   V 
Portulaca    F 
Primula,   tender   .  .  B 
hardy   ...C 
Pyrethrum.     hardy.  V 
"    golden-leaved.  Q 

Rehmannia   N 
Rhodanthe     M 
Rhodochiton  N 
Ricinus  F 
Rocket    V 
Rose,  monthly  1 
'•     hardy   V 
Rudbeckia,  annual  U 

Salpiglossis     A 

Adonis    F 
Ageratum     F 
Agrostemma    A 
Alyssum     F 
"      perennial..  V 
Amaranthua    A 
Ampelopsis    V 
Anchusa     V 
Anemone   V 
Angelonia    N 
Antirrhinum   A 
Aquilegia  V 
Aralia     N 
Arctotis    A 
Aristolochia    V 
Arnebia    A 

Cockscomb     A 
Coleus    D 
Collinsia    U 
Convolvulus     F 
Coreopsis,   hardy...  V 
Cosmos    A 
Cowslip     C 
Crepis                          U 

Kaulfussia 

u 

Kenilworth  Iw   . 
Kochia     

.V 
.A 
.V 

.N 
.U 
V 
.F 
.V 
.U 
.N 
.U 
.U 

:5 

.u 
..v 

..F 

.F 
..F 
.F 

:i 

..F 

.U 
.D 

n 

Kudzu  Vine  

Lantana     
Larkspur,   annual 
Lathvrus  latifoliu 
Lavatera    
Lavender    
Layia    
Lemon    Verbena 
Leptosiphon    
Linum    
Lobelia,  annual  . 
hardy   .. 
Lupinus   
Lychnis    

Malope    
Mallow     
Marigold    
Marvel   of  Peru 
Mathiola    
Matricaria    
Maurandia    
Mesembryan- 
themum 
Mignonette    
Mimosa    
Mimulus    

Cueumis  F 
Cuphea     A 
Cyclamen     B 
Cypress  Vine   F 

Dahlia    ..,         0 
Datura     F 
Delphinium     V 
Dianthus.  annual..  U 
hardv   ..V 
Digitalis    "  V 
Dimorphotheoa  A 
Dolichos  F 

Asparagus 
Verticillatus    V 
"    plumosa     ....S 
"    Sprengeri     .  .  .  S 

Auricula    C 

Dracaena    .N 

Echinocystis   F 
Edelweiss     V 
Eschscholtzia   U 
Euphorbia   F 

Ferns    S 
Fuchsia    N 

Gaillardia   F 
perennial.  V 
Geranium    N 
Geum                           V 

Balloon  Vine  F 
Balsam     A 
Bartonia    U 
Begonia    8 
Bellis    C 
Bignonia    V 
Brachycome    F 
Browallia     A 
Bryonopsis  F 

"       perennial.  V 
Schizanthus    F 
Silene     F 
Smilax   N 
Steria     A 
Stocks,   annual   ...A 
biennial   ...1 
Stokesia     V 
Sunflower     F 
Swainsonia    S 
Sweet  Pea     E 
Sweet  Sultan    F 
Sweet  William  V 

Tagetes                     F 

Cacalia    U 
Calampelis    A 
Calandrinia     P 
Calceolaria    B 
Calendula    F 
Calliopsis.  annual..  F 
Campanula     V 
Canarv   Vine   F 
Candytuft    U 
hardy   ...V 
(  'anna     O 
Canterbury  Bell   ..V 
Carnation    T 
Celastrus   V 
Celosia     A 
Centaurea    U 
"      white-leaved  Q 
Centrosema     V 
Chrysanthemum, 
annual   ..U 
"        perennial  T 
Cineraria     B 
"     white-  leaved.  Q 

Momordica    
Moon  Flower   .  .  . 
Morning  Glory    . 
Musa    
Myosotis    

Nasturtium   
Xemesia     
Xemophia    

:.i 

..F 
..F 
.K 
..C 

..F 
.N 

Gilia                            U 

Gladiolus   Seed    ...0 
Globe    Amaranth  .  .  M 
Gloxinia     S 
Godetia    U 
Goldenrod    V 
Gourds                        F 

Thunbergia    F 
Torenia    D 
Tritoma    O 
Tropaeolum    F 

Valerian     V 

Grevillea    N 
Gypsophilah....;;:F 

Helichrysum    M 
Heliotrope   N 
Helenium    V 
Heuchera    F 
Hibiscus,  annual  ..F 
hardy   ...V 
Hollyhock,    hardy..  V 
annual.  A 
Honeysuckle   V 
Humea    Q 
Hum  tilus    F 
Hyacinthus   .  .'  0 

Xigella 

y 

Oenothera    

..A 

Verbena   A 
Vinca     M 
Violet   C 

P»onia    
Palava   
Pansy    
Passion  Flower   . 
Pelargonium     .  .  . 
Pennisetum     .  .  .  . 
Pentstemon     .  .  .  . 

..V 
.U 
..C 
..N 
..N 

::vF 

Virginian  Stock   ..U 
Viscaria     U 

Wallflower   V 
Wistaria     V 

Zea    F 
Zinnias     F 

Used  by   permission  of   Peter    Henderson  &  Co.,  of  New  York, 


GENERAL  RULES 


To  avoid  repetition  in  the  lettered  rules  below,  the  following  general  rules  and  notes 
hare  been  cut  from  the  Henderson  original  directions: 

Where  mentioned  as  necessary  to  grow  seedlings,  flats  should  not  be  over  2%  inches 
deep. 

Seeds  should  be  covered  not  more  than  four  times  their  diameters. 

Unless  otherwise  stated,  seeds  should  be  firmed  in  the  soil,  as  shown  In  Fig.  7. 

Never  let  seedlings  become  dry. 

Transplanting  of  seedlings  is  done  when  two  or  three  true  leaves  have  formed. 


A   Sow  in  flats  in  greenhouse,  hotbed,  or  light    window   of   dwelling   in   temperature   of 
60  to  70  degrees.     Cover  and  firm  the  seeds.     Water  with   fine   spray.     Transplant    1 
inch  apart  in  similar  flats  or  2-inch   pots.     Plant  out  in  garden  after  danger  from  frost. 
Seed  may  also  be  sown  in  open  ground  after  danger  from  frost  is  over. 

BSow  in  flats  of  light  soil  in  greenhouse,  hotbed,  or  light  window.  In  temperature  of 
50  to  60  degrees,  at  any  time  except  during  hot  weather  (spring  months  preferred). 
Merely  press  the  seed  into  the  soil  with  firming  board;  rub  a  little  light  soil  through 
a  fine  sieve  over  them  until  covered  not  deeper  than  1-16  of  an  inch.  Water  with  fine 
spray.  Transplant  1  inch  apart  in  flats.  Pot  off  as  soon  as  large  enough.  Shift  as  pots 
fill  with  roots  until  the  sizes  of  the  pots  are  6  or  7  inches. 

CFor  early  flowering,  sow  in  fall  in  bed  of  fine,   well-pulverized  soil.     Cover  and  firm 
the  seed.     Transplant   about  2  inches  apart  in  cold  frames;    cover  with  mats  during 
very  cold  weather.     Sow  also  in  spring  in  flats,   in  temperature  of  about  60  degrees,  and 
transplant  1  inch  apart  in  flats.     Plant  in  the  open   as  soon  as  frost  has  left  the  ground. 
The  plants  succeed  best  in  a  moist,  loamy  soil,  partially  protected  from  hot  sun. 


DSow  in  light  soil  in  flats,   placed  in  hotbed,   greenhouse,  or  window,   in  a  tempera- 
ture  of   60   to   70   degrees.     Cover   seeds    and    press    firmly.     Water    with   fine  spray. 

om 
pla 


Transplant   1  inch  apart   in  flats.     Plant  out  in  open  garden  after  danger  from  frost,  or 
pot  in  2-inch  pots  and  plant  out  from  these,   or  shift  into  larger  pots  as  the  plants  need 


root  room  —  this  last  provided  large  plants  in  pots  are  desired. 

ESow  in   spring  in   open   ground  where  plants  are  to  grow,   in  deeply  prepared  soil. 
The  sooner  sowing  can  be  done  the  better.     Thin  seedlings  to  6  inches  apart.     Moist, 
loamy  soil  gives  best  results.     Seeds  should  be  2  inches  deep  in  soil;    in  lighter  soil  they 
should   be   4   or   5   inches   deep,    and  the   soil   should  be  well  firmed  upon   them.     If  not 
allowed  to  go  to  seed  they  will  flower  much  longer. 

FSow  out  of  doors  in  well-pulverized  soil  when  danger  from  frost  is  over.     Cover  and 
press   soil   firmly.     Thin   out  so  the  plants  are  not  crowded.     If  desired,   early  seed 
may  also  be  sown  in  greenhouse,  hotbed,  or  light  window  of  dwelling.    Transplant  to  flats 
and  plant  in  open  ground  after  danger  from  frost  is  over. 

GSow  in   spring  in   open    ground   where   plants   are  to  remain.     Cover  and  firm,   and 
thin  seedlings  as  necessary  so  they  do  not  crowd.    Protect  roots  in  winter  by  cover- 
ing of  leaves  or  straw. 

I  Sow  in  flats  of  light  soil  in  greenhouse  or  hotbed.  Cover  and  firm.  Transplant  in 
flats  and  plant  out  in  open  ground  after  frost  danger  is  over.  If  sown  early,  they  will 
flower  the  first  year;  if  not,  they  will  have  to  be  taken  up.  in  cold  localities,  potted  off 
and  kept  in  cool  greenhouse,  or  heeled  in  in  protected  frames  during  winter.  Sow  also  in 
well-pulverized  bed  in  open  ground  in  spring  or  summer,  and  care  for  in  winter  in  the 
same  way. 

JSow  in  light  soil  in  flats  in  warm  greenhouse,  hotbed,  or  light  window  of  dwelling. 
Cover.     Transplant  to  flats   1   inch  apart.     If  profusion  of  flowers  is  desired,   pot  off 
when  about   1   inch  high  into  2%  -inch  pots  and  allow  to  become  pretty  well  root-bound, 


to   check  luxuriant  growth  and  throw  the   vigor   into  flowers.     Plant  out  in  garden  after 
danger  of  frost  is  over. 

K     Plant  seeds  in  flats  about  1  inch  apart  and  %  to  1  inch  deep,  in  light  soil  mixed 
with  cocoanut  dust,   leaf  mold,   or  well-rotted  manure.     Place  in  warm  situation  at 
temperature  of  not   less  than  70  degrees,  either  in   greenhouse,   hotbed,   or  window.     When 
seedlings   are  large  enough,   pot  off  singly  into  small  pots,  and  shift  into  larger  ones   as 
necessary. 

MSow  out  of  doors  when  danger  of  frost  is  over.     Cover,   press  firmly,  and  thin  out 
seedlings  to  prevent  crowding.     If  desired  early,  sow  in  flats  in  greenhouse,  hotbed, 
or  light  window,   in  temperature  averaging  70  degrees,   and  transplant  to  similar  flats.     If 
desired  to   keep   flowers  as  everlastings,   cut  when  buds   are  a  little  more  than  half  open 
and  suspend  in  a  dark,  dry  place  with  heads  down  until  fully  dry. 

NSow  in  flats  of  light  soil  in  greenhouse,  hotbed,  or  light  window  of  dwelling  house, 
in   temperature    averaging  65   degrees.     Cover,    press   firmly,   and  transplant   seedlings 
1  inch  apart  into  similar  flats.     Water  with  fine  spray.     Pot  off  as  soon  as  large  enough, 
and   repot,   as  they  grow,   into  larger  pots;    or  they  may  be  planted  out  in  open   ground 
for  the  summer,   after  danger  of  frost  is  over. 

OSow  in  flats  of  light  soil  in  greenhouse,  hotbed,  or  light  window  of  dwelling,  with 
an    averase    temperature   of   65   degrees.     Transplant    1    inch    apart  to   similar  flats, 
and  pln-t  out   in    earden   after  danger  of  frost  is  over.     In  fall,   take  up  roots   and  store 
In    ««••  ••!    in  CO' I.   rt  v   i  lace,   such    as  cellar.     Sowings  may  also  be  made   in  open  ground 
i  j  S!  TI..S.  after  danger  <t  frost   is  orer. 

301 


302 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


PSow  in  open  ground  after  danger  from  frost  is  over.  In  bed*  of  well- pulverized  soil. 
Plants  should  remain  where  sown,  as  they  will  not  stand  transplanting  unless  done 
with   extraordinary  care.     Thin   out  carefully,  so  as   not    to   disturb   the   remaining   plants 
more  than  necessary.     For   succession  of  blooms,    two   or  three  sowings  may   be   made  at 
intervals  during  summer. 

QTo  get  good  sized  plants  for  planting  cut  in  the  spring,  sow  seed  in  flats  in  green- 
house,  hotbed,  or  light   window   of  dwelling  as  soon  after  January  first  as   possible. 
in    light   soil,    in    temperature   averaging   60   degrees.     Cover,    firm.     Transplant    to   similar 
flats  1  inch  apart.     When  large  enough,  pot  in  2V4-inch  pots.     Plant  in  open  ground  alter 
danger  from  frost  is  over. 

SSow  in  flats  of  light  soil,  in  temperature  of  70  degrees,  in  greenhouse,  or  light  window 
of  dwelling.     Merely  press  seed  into  soil.     Always  water  with  fine  spray,  so  as  not  to 
disturb  the  surface.     Place  pane  of  glass  over  top,  but  allow  a  little  space  for  ventilation. 
Put  flats  in  shaded  place.     Transplant  to  similar  flats  and  pot  off  when   large  enough. 

TSow  in  spring  in  greenhouse,   hotbed,  or  light  window  of  dwelling,  where  temperature 
will  average  60  degrees.     Use  flats  of  light  soil.     Cover.     Transplant  seedlings  1  inch 
apart   in   flats.     When   1   or   2   inches,    pot   in   2% -inch   flats,    and  shift  to   larger   ones   as 
needed,    or  plant   in   open    ground,    where   plants   will   form  flowering  clumps  for  fall   and 
winter. 

USow  out  of  doors  after  danger  from  frost,    and,   for  succession,    at  intervals  during 
summer.     For    early     flowering,  sow    in    greenhouse,  hotbed,   or    south    or    southeast 
window    of    dwelling,    in    flats,    with    average    temperature    of    60    degrees.     Transplant   to 
similar  flats   and   plant   seedlings   in   open    after  danger   from  frost   is   past.     Also   sow  in 
garden  in  May  in  light  soil:    cover,   firm,  and  water  with  flne  spray. 

VSow  out  of  doors  after  danger  from  frost  's  over,  in  beds  of  finely  pulverized   soil. 
Cover    with    light    soil    and    firm.     Thin    out    when    necessary.     Plant    in    permanent 
position  as  soon  as  seeds  are  large  enough,  so  they  may  become  firmly  rooted  or  established 
before  cold  weather;    or  sow  in  early  fall,  carry  plants  over  in  cold  frame,  and  transplant 
to  permanent  position  in  spring. 


TABLE  2— WOODY  PLANTS 


Acer    A,  B, 
Aesculus    B. 
Ailanthus    

B 
C 

r 

Cornus     .  .  . 
'Cratsegus 
Cytisus     .  . 

Deutzia    .. 
Diervilla     . 

:::::£;:  ! 

E 
E    G 

Kerria 

E   G 

A,  1 

Koelreuteria 

Laburnum     . 
Larix   

C 
...C.  1 

Rhamnus  .. 
Robinia    ... 

:::B.-HC 

Akebia    

Almond  (dbl.   fl.). 
Alnus    

Rose    
Salix    

.A,  F,  1 
G,  1 

Amelamchier    ...C. 
Amorpha     

G,  1 

Li  gust  rum    .  . 
*IJquidambar 
l.iriodendron 
Lonicera    .  .  . 

Magnolia   ... 
Menispermum 
Myrica     
Mulberry    .  .  . 

Nemopanthes 
•Xyssa     .... 

..B,  F 
..A.  B 
...B,  1 
..A,  B 

A.  F.  1 
F 
A 
...G.  1 

A 
B 

Sambucus    . 
Sassafras   .. 
Sophora   ... 
Spiraea 

.C,  D,  G 
...C,  H 

Ampelopsis    

Barberry    
Betula    A.  B, 
Bignonia    

Ca  lye  an  thus  B, 
Caragana    ..   D,  H 
Carpinus     
Catalpa    B,  E. 

F 

Ela?agnus    . 
Exochorda 

Fagus     .. 

.'.'.'..'6,  D 
B.  1 

Stuartia    C,  D.  F 
*Styrax     A,  B,  E 
Symphoricarpus   B,  E 
Symplocus    C,  F 
Syringa    ..D,  E,  G,  1 

Tamarix     G 
Taxodium   C,  1 
Tilia     B,  1 

Ulmus   A,  1 

Vaccinium     C 
*Viburnum    .  .  .  .  B,  E 

Wistaria  C.  F,  1 
Xanthoceras    ...C,  H 

Forsythia   . 
•Fraxinus  . 

Ginkgo     .. 
Gleditschia 

....E.G 
B,  1 

B.  1 
B,  1 

Hamamelis 

C 

Ostrya    
Oxydendrum 

Paulownia  .. 
Philadelphus 
Phellodendron 
Populus    

...C,  1 
C 

'.'.'.'.'H 

..A.  G 
...A,  1 

Cephalanthus     .... 
Cercediphyllum    ... 
Chestnut   B, 
Chinquapin    
Chionanthus   C, 
Cladrastis   D. 
Clethra     

H 
F 

Hickorv    .  . 
Hydrangea 
Hypericum 

Itea  
Juglans    .. 

•::::!;£ 

c 

B,  1 

Colutea    

G 

Juneberry    B 

Ptelia    

*  Seeds  often  require  two  years  to  germinate. 

A    Seeds  sown  as  soon  as  ripe;    hardy  kinds  in  frames  outdoors,   tender  one*  In  green- 
house. 

^J    Seeds  stratified  over  winter  and  sown  in  spring  in  nursery  row. 
£J    Seeds,  spring  or  fall  sown.  In  frames. 
^     Layers  during  summer. 


CULTURAL    INSTRUCTIONS 


303 


J£    Soft  or  semi -mature  cuttings  in  early  summer. 

J«"     Soft  or  semi-mature  cuttings  in  winter  or  spring,   in  gentle  heat. 

Q     RiPe  wood  cuttings  in  fall,   winter,   or  spring. 

J-J     Root  cuttings  in   spring. 

I     Named  varieties  and  rare  species  grafted  on  seedling  or  cutting-grown  stocks. 


TABLE  3— EVERGREENS 


Abies                A 

D,  E 

A    H 

Kalmia 

B    D 

I'iliUS 

A    D 

Andromeda    ... 
Azalea   

.B,  F 
...H 

Cotoneaster 

•;:.  :.tJ 

Ledum    .  . 

f 

Pseudotsuga 

A.  B,  E 

C 

Daphne    .  .  . 

G 

Leiophyllum 
Leucothoe  ... 

..C,  F 
..C.  F 

Retinospora 

...A,  D 

Calluna 

H 

*llex     

A,  D 

Mahonia    .... 

H 

Bhododendro 

n    .A,  D 

A    D 

...A,  D 

Chamsecyparis 

...A 

Muniperus  . 

.A,  D,  H 

Picea     

..D,  E 

Thuya    .... 

...A.  D 

Sow  seeds  in  spring.     Transplant  seedlings  to  nursery  rows  following  spring. 

andy   soil,   or   sphagnum,    in   pots   o 
seedlings  following  spring,  or,  if  too 


BSow    freshly    ripe   seeds   thinly   in    peaty-sandy   soil,   or   sphagnum,    in   pots   or 
Give  ample  air  in  cold  frame.     Plant 
prick  out  in  flats. 

£J     Sow   newly   ripe  seeds   in   light,   well-drained  soil  in   cold  frame. 

seedlings.     Veneer  grafts  generally   do  best. 
Set    seedlings    of   i 
months  to  a  year. 

f     Layers  pegged  down  in  September  will  root  in  a  year  or  less. 

G     Mature  cuttings  in  fall  in  well-drained  pots  of  peaty  soil  in  propagating  bed.     Keep 
cool  during  winter.     Give  gentle  heat  in  spring.     Pot  rooted  plants  singly,  and  grow 
in  mild  but  close  heat  till  established.     Harden  off  in  fail. 

J-J     Mature  wood  cuttings  in  late  summer  in  sand,  in  cold  frames  or  cool  house. 


TABLE  4— VINES 


Actinidia 

Celastrus 

Humulus 

Periploca 

Akebia 

Clematis 

Ampelopsis 
Apios 
Aristolochia 

Decumaria 

Ipomoea 

Rose,   Climbing 

Lonicera 

Bignonia 

Euonymus 

Lycium 

Wistaria 

Seeds  in  late  winter  or   early  spring;    layers  during  spring  or  summer;    mature  wood 
cuttings  in  summer  or  fall,   in  mild  heat;    greenwood  cuttings  in  winter. 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


TABLE  5— HARDY  PERENNIALS 


Acanthus 

Cassia 

Hasmodorum 

Polygonatum 

Achillea 

Catananche 

Hedysarum 

Polygonum 

Aconite 
Acorus 

Centaurea 

Centranthus 

Hepatica 
Heracleum 

Poteutilla 

Actaea 

Cerastium 

Hesperis 

Ranunculus 

Adonis 

Chelone 

Heuchera 

Bheum 

Ajuga 

Chrysanthemum 

Hollyhock 

Budbeckia 

Althaea 

Cimicifuga 

Houstonia 

Alyssum 

Clematis 

Hyssop 

Sal  via 

Amsonia 

Clinton!  a 

Sanguinaria 

Anchusa 
Anemone 

Coreopsis 

Inula 

Saponaria 
Saxifraga 

Anthemis 
Apios 

Aquilegia 
Arabis 
Arenaria 
Armeria 

Delphinium 
Diantbus 
Dicentra 
Dictamnus 
Digitalis 

Liatris 

1« 
Lychnis 

Lysimachia 

Scabiosa 
Shepherdia 
Silene 
Silphium 
Sisyrinchium 
Stachys 

Arnica 

Dodecatheon 

Lythrum 

Staphylea 

Artemisia 
Arundo 

Dracocephalum 

Mandragora 

Statice 
Stokesla 

Asperula 

Asphodeline 
Aubretia 
Auricula 

Echinops 
Elecampane 
Epimedium 

Mertensia 
Miscanthus 

Tansy 
Thalictrum 
Trillium 

S£. 

Boltonia 

Eryngium 
Eupatorium 

Gaillardia 

Oenothera 

Pentstemon 
Phalaris 

Trollius 
Uvularia 
Verbascum 

Borago 

Galega 
Gentiana 

Phlomis 
Phlox 

Veronica 

Callirrhoe 

Geum 

Platycodon 

Wormwood 

Campanula 

Gynerium 

Podophyllum 

Caryopteris 

Gypsophila 

Polemonium 

Yucca 

Sow  the  above  named  species  (1)  outdoors  after  danger  of  frost  in  beds  of  finely  pul- 
verized, light  soil,  transplant  to  permanent  place  wheu  large  enough  to  become  established 
before  cold  weather;  (2)  or  sow  the  seed  between  midsummer  and  early  fall  in  cold 
frames,  protect  over  winter,  and  plant  the  seedlings  in  the  spring:  (3)  start  the  seeds 
during  midwinter  in  the  greenhouse,  transplant  to  small  plots,  and  shift  when  rooted.  In 
case  three,  plants  kept  growing  sturdily  will  usually  bloom  the  first  season. 


TABLE  6— BULBS,  CORMS  AND  TUBERS 


Agapan  thus     A 

B 

Helleborus     .  . 

....A 

Ornithogalum 

...B 

Allium     B 

Hemerocallis 

A 

Oxalis     

...B 

Alstroemeria      E 

Dahlia    

^ 

Hippeastrum   . 

B 

Amorphophallus    .  .  D 
Anemone     

Dicentra    
Dioscorea     .... 

...E 
...E 

Iris 

A    B 

Polianthes     .  .  . 
Puschkinia    ... 

::.! 

Anthericum     .  . 

Eranthis    

...E 

Ixi'a    

B 

Ranunculus    .  . 

...A 

Apiog    

Eremurus     .... 

...E 

Bichardia    

C 

Astilbe     

Eucharis  "?!.'.". 

E 
!'.'.£ 

Kniphofla    ... 

B 

Soilla    

Begonia    
Rnussingaulia    .... 

Freesia    

...B 

Leucoium    .  .  . 

F 
B 

Sparaxis    

E 

Caladium     
Canna     

Fritillaria    
Funkia     

...A 
...A 

Milla    

B 

Trillium   '.'..'.. 
Triteleia     

::.* 

...D 

B 

B 

Colchicum     

Galtonia    

Convallarla     E 

Gladiolus    

Narcissus     ... 

B 

Zephyranthes    . 

.  .  .B 

See  115  for  special  treatment. 
Seeds.    Offsets,  tubers,  or  divisions  of 


plants  early  In  spring. 


CULTURAL    INSTRUCTIONS 


305 


Seeds.     Bulbels  or  offsets  fall  planted  under  glass,  or  spring  planted  out  of  doors. 


Seeds.  Offsets  or  divisions  at  any  time. 
Seeds.  Division  of  roots  fall  or  spring. 
Bulbels  as  soon  as  possible  after  foliage  matures. 


TABLE  7—  GREENHOUSE  AND  HOUSE  PLANTS 


...A 

Fuchsia   .... 

A 

Polianthes 

Acalypha     B 

Bouganvillea     . 
Bouvardia    

...F 
B,  C 

Genista    

B 

Plumbago    .  .  . 

B 

Achyranthes     
Agapanthus      

Caladium  
Calla 

C,  G 

c 

Geranium    .  . 
Hibiscus     . 

A 
..A,  H 

Richardia    .  .  . 

....E 

Ageratum    

c 

Hydrangea 

.  A 

Smilax     

E 

Allamanda    

Carnation  

...A 

•Iwainsona  .  .  . 

A 

Alternanthera    
Alyssum    

Chrysanthemum 
Clerodendron  A, 
Clevia 

..H 
C.  E 

Jasminum    .. 

A 

Thunbergia     . 
Tigridia 

H 
D 

Amaryllis    
Anthericum     

Cobcea  
Coleus 

...A 
B 

Lobelia    

A 

Tuberose     .  .  . 

....D 

Antirrhinum   

Q 

B 

Vallota 

Ardisia    . 

Asparagus     

Dieffenbachia 

...G 

Pandanus    .  . 

...B,  E 

Vinca    

C 

Aspidistra    
Aucuba    

...D 

Passiflora    .  . 

* 

o 

A   Green    wood   cuttings    at   any   time,    rather   warm   temperature;    after   rooting   pot  in 
friable  soil. 

^  Green  wood  cuttings,  warm  temperature;    late  winter  or  early  spring. 

£J  Boot  division  or  root  cuttings;    autumn  or  early  spring. 

f^  Off-sets  or  divisions;    whenever  mature  enough  to  remove. 

E  Division,  crown,  or  suckers  at  any  time. 

p  Semi-mature  wood  cuttings,  warm  temperature. 

G  Tubers,   dry  or  resting,  moderate  temperature;    syringed  daily  at  least  once. 

J-J  Semi-mature  wood  cuttings,   fall,  winter  or  spring.     Low  temperature. 

TABLE  8— FERNS 


Acrostichum 

Cyathea 

Lastrea 

•Platycerium 

Adiantum                 A 

Cyrtonium 

Lomaria 

Platyloma 

Alsophila 

Cystopteris 

*Lygodium 

•Polypodium 

Aspidium 
Asplenium                A 

*Davallia 
*Dicksonia 

Nephrodium 

Polystlchum            A 
Pteris 

Doodia 

•Nephrolepia 

Botrychium 

Doryopteris 

Cheilanthes 
Civotium 

Gleichenia 
Gymnogramma          A 

Onychium 
•Osmunda 

Scolopendrium 
**Selaginella 

pots   or  pana  in  early  spring. 
Steam  steriMzed  soil  at  high  temperature  to  destroy  fern  enemies. 


306 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


Soil  mixture:  Two  parts  each  garden  loam  and  peat  (or  leaf  mold)  and  one  part 
clean,  sharp  sand.  Use  only  sterilized  (boiled  and  cooled)  water  for  watering  Buy  only 
best  grade  spores.  Sow  in  March.  July,  or  October.  Use  cans  12  inches  square  and  4 
inches  deep,  or  6-inch  %  pots,  each  a  third  full  of  drainage  (cinders).  Press  soil  firmly 
in  pots  or  pans.  Pass  surface  half  inch  through  %-inch  screen,  level,  press  and  water 
Wait  four  hours  before  dusting  spores  on  surface.  Use  no  more  spores  for  12-inch  pan 
than  w  II  pile  on  a  H-inch  circle.  Have  no  breeze  while  sowing.  Don't  cover  with  soil. 
Place  shaded  sash  over  frame  and  keep  closed  tell  germination  starts,  then  give  air,  little 
at  first,  more  gradually  till  fronds  appear  and  are  hardened  enough  to  have  sash  removed 

surface0  fsWacoer  JS'  *??  rf?  7  more  -^^  Weed  OUt  ""desifable  plant!  VheT  pHi 
surface  is  covered  with  little  ferns,  prick  out  in  clumps  of  three  to  six  just  level  with 
surface  of  other  flats.  When  clumps  have  three  or  four  fronds,  transplant  singly  in  other 

•ns    (among   them   species  and  varieties  of  genera  marked  A   in  the  list) 
9  buds,   bulblets.  or  plantlets   on    fronds    and   pinnae.     These,    planted 

tefor^e^ts^ar^gU00'    *   **  ^   tW°   "^     °therS   may   * 

TABLE  9— PALMS 


Acanthophcenix 
Acanthorhiza 
Acrocomia 
Archonphoenix 

Clinostigma 
•Cocoa 
Corypha 
Cycas 
Cyphopho3iiix 

Hyophorbse 
Hyphsene 

Jubsea 

Pmanga 
•Pecctocomia 
Pritchardia 
Ptychosperma 

Arenga 
Astrocarpum 
Attalea 

Cyphosperma 

Dictosperma 
Didymosperma 

Kentia 
Kentiopsis 

Latania 

Raphia 
Rhapidophyllum 
Rhapis 
RhopalostylK 

*Bactris 
Bacularia 
Borassus 
Brahea 

Dion 
Diplothemium 
Drymophlo-us 
DypJs 

Licuala 
Linospadix 
Livistonia 
Lodoicea 

Boscheria 

*SabaI 
Scheilea 

Seaforthea 

Elaeis 

Martinez!  a 

Calamus 
Calyptrogyne 

Erythea 
Euterpe 

Maxiliminia 

Thrinax 
*Trachycarpus 

•Caryota 
Ceratolobus 

•Geonoma 

Nenga 

Veitchia 

Ceroxylon 

Oreodoxa 

A-erschaffeltia 

Certostachys 

Hedyscepe 

Chamredorea 

Howea 

*Phcenix 

*Wallichia 

Chamsrops 

Hydriastela 

Phytelephas 

Washingtonia 

*  Easily  grown  from  suckers. 

Sow  seeds  thickly,  %-inch  deep,  in  sandy  loam  in  propagating  frame  in  warm  green- 
house. Give  plenty  of  heat  and  moisture.  Some  species  require  two  or  three  weeks  to 
germinate,  others  two  months,  still  others  three  years.  Possibly  the  sulphuric  acid  method 


shift  to  larger  sizes  slowly,  but  as  needed, 
manure,  with  peat,  leaf  mold  and  sand. 


Use  friable  compost  of  rotted  sod  and  stable 


TABLE  10— WATER  PLANTS 


....A 

Juncus    

A 

Nelumbium 

A*,  B,  F 

Saururus 

....H 

Alisma  
Apouogeton  . 

Cabomba 

B 
...B,  C 

A    B 

Jussirea    (Jussieua) 

B 

N'ymphaea  . 
Orontium    . 

B,  F 

....A,  B 
A,  B 

Scirpus 

Trapa 
Typha 

(Juncus)..  A 

B 
A,  B 

Oaltha  

-ft'B 

Limnocharis    A,  B, 

E 

Peltandra 

A.  B 

Victoria 

a 

Eichhornia  . 

...A.  B 

Ludwigia     
Lyriophyllum     .  .  . 

B 
B 

Pontederia 

Sagittaria 

A,  B 
....A,  B 

Zizania 

B 

Seeds  should  be  cut  to  admit  water. 
Division  in  spring. 


CULTURAL   INSTRUCTIONS 


307 


Newly  ripe  seeds  in  pots  plunged  In  water,  under  glass. 
Off- sets  at  any  time. 
Division  after   flower. 
Runners,   or  stolin. 


p"     Cuttings  of  rhizome   (12  inches  long),  kept  under  water  when  out  of  doors. 

GKeep  seeds  wet  froi 
inches  deep  in  watei 

]-]    Sow  in  moist  loam. 


GKeep  seeds  wet  from  ripening  till   sown.     Place   hi  sandy  loam  in  pots.     Immerse   2 
inches  deep  in  water  never  less  than  85  degrees,   in  well-lighted  tank,  near  the  glass. 


TABLE  n—  ORCHIDS 


Hroughtonia 

Dendrobium   .  . 

R 

Phaius    ... 

...A 

Acanthephippium 

**Disa    

A 

***PhaUEnopsis 

R 

Ada     
Aerides    
Aganisia    

§ 

A 

Burlingtonia 
Calanthe    ... 

A 
A 

Epidendrum    •*•• 
Lselia              .   .  . 

.B 

A 

***Saccalobiura 
Satyrium     .... 
Sobralia     

...B 
...A 
A 

| 

A 

Ansellia   

A 

•Calypso 

Aplectrum     

Catasetum  . 
Cattleya  .  .  . 
Coelogyne  .  . 

A 
A 
....A 

Maxillaria  
Microstylis    

.A 
.B 

Trichopilla    ... 

...A 

"Batemannia    .  .  . 
Bletla    A, 
Brassia    

A 
B 
A 

Comparettia 
Cymbidium   . 
Cyprepedium 

....A 
....A 
....A 

Odontoglossum     . 
Oncidium     

.A 
.A 

Vanilla     
Zygopetalum    . 

.A/B 
...A 

*  Offsets  usually   employed.     Difficult  to  handle. 

**»Some  species  form  plantlets  on  old  flower   stems   when   pegged  down   on  moss;  others 
form  plantlets  on  the  roots. 

Seeds.  Hand  pollination  of  cultivated  orchids  is  necessary  to  secure  seeds.  Choose 
nearly  related  genera  or  species  where  hybrids  are  desired,  because  distantly  related  ones 
may  not  "take  to  each  other,"  or  the  offspring  may  resemble  the  seed-bearing  parent. 
Select  for  the  seed-bearing  parent  a  plant  of  vigorous  health,  free  growth  and  flowering 
habit,  because  the  offspring  usually  "take  after  the  mother"  in  form,  but  after  the 
"father"  in  flower  color.  To  pollinate,  place  one  or  more  ripe  pollen  masses  on  the  right 
stigma  of  the  female  flower.  Seeds  require  sometimes  three  to  six  months,  but  oftener  a 
year,  to  ripen.  Sow  seed  as  soon  as  ripe  by  dusting  on  surface  of  pots  or  baskets  in 
which  healthy  plants  of  the  same  genus  are  grown.  Keep  moist  with  very  fine  rose  till 
seedlings  are  started.  Spring-sown  seed  usually  sprouts  quickest.  Some  species  require  a 
year  or  more  to  germinate.  When  seedlings  have  two  or  three  leaves,  plant  in  flats,  or 
singly  in  small  pots,  in  compost  suited  to  the  parent,  but  finer.  Should  compost  become 
sour,  transfer  seedlings  to  other  soil. 

A  Division.  Choose  none  but  sturdy  plants.  Carefully  remove  soil.  Cut  plant  with 
keen  knife  so  each  piece  will  have  at  least  one  "lead."  In  some  cases  the  pro- 
cumbent rhizomes  produce  only  one  growth  from  the  pseudo  bulb.  With  these  cut  part 
way  through  the  rhizomes  two  or  three  pseudo  bulbs  behind  the  leaf,  in  late  winter  or 
early  spring.  Count  on  one  new  bud  from  the  base  of  the  bulb  next  the  division.  Do 
not  separate  till  the  lead  is  well  established;  then  sever  and  pot. 

B  Cuttings.  Choose  long-jointed  species.  In  midwinter,  just  before  plants  start  growth, 
cut  old  pseudo  bulbs  according  to  joints.  Lay  pieces  on  moist  moss  in  warm  propa- 
gating frame.  When  young  offshoots  have  started  well,  pot  whole  piece  and  plantlet. 
Where  the  rhizomes  form  roots  before  cutting,  leave  such  roots  on  the  lower  parts  of  the 
stems  (at  least  a  foot  long),  discarding  the  upper  part.  These  stems  produce  new 
growths,  which  may  bo  rooted  later. 


30* 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 

TABLE  12— CACTI 


Cereus 

A 

Epiphyllum 

Opuntia 

A 

Phyllocactua 

Pilocereus 

Echinocactua 
Echinopsis 

A 

A 

Mamillaria           •     A 
Melocactus 

Pelecyphora 
Pereskia 

A 

Rhipsalis 

A     Sow  seeds   in   sandy  soil  in    semi-shade   till   sprouting   starts;    then  expose  to  sun. 
Water  with  care.     Seeds  give  best  results  particularly  with  species  marked  A. 
BMake  cuttings,  or  make  off-sets,   with  sharp  knife.     Lay  in  sun  or  on  dry  sand  till 
wounds  heal  and  roots  start;    then  pot  in  sandy  soil  and  syringe  daily,  or  ofteuer. 
C    Graft  weak  or   sprawling  kinds   on  strong  or  erect  species   (E.g.,   Pereskia  aculeapa, 
p.   Bleo,   Cereus  Peruvanlu*  and  C.  Tortuous).    See  329. 


INDEX  TO  PLANT  LISTS 

The  numbers  refer  to  the  Plant  Lists  on  the 
preceding  pages. 


A 

Amsonit,  5 

Aaron's  Beard.     See  Hypericum,  2 

Anchusa.  1,  5 

Abies,  3 
Abronia.  1 
Abutilon,  1,  7 
Acacia,  1 
Acalypha,  7 
Acanthephippium,  11 
Acanthophoenix,  9 
Acanthorhiza.  9 
Acanthus,  5,  7 
Acer,  2 
Aceras,  11 
Achillea,  1,  5 

Anemia,  8  ' 
Anemone,  1,  5,  6 
Angelonia,  1 
Angraecum.     See  Aerides,  11 
Anguloa,  11 
Anoectochilus,  11 
Anomatheca,  6 
Ansellia.  11 
Anthemis.  5 
Anthericum,  6.  7 
Antirrhinum,  1,  7 

Achyranthes,  7 

Apios,  4,  5,  6 
Aplectrum.  11 

Aconite!  Winter.     See  Eranthis,  6 
Acorus.  5.  10 
Acrachinium.  1 

SSTSS:  "ee  Podophyllum.  5 
Aquilegia,  1.  5 

Acrocomia,  9 

Arabis,  5 

Acrostichum,  8 
Actaea,  5 
Actinidia,  4 

Arbor  Vitae.     See  Thuya,  3 
Archonophoenix,  9 
Arcotis,  1 

Adam's  Needle.     See  Yucc*,  5 

Ardisia,  7 
Areca    9 

Adiantum,  8 
Adlumia,  1 
Adonis.  1.  5 
Aerides,  11 
Aesculus,  2 
African  Corn  Lily.     See  Ixia.  6 
African  Lily.     See  Agapanthus,  6 
Aganisia,  11 

Arena'ria,  5 
Arenga,  9 
Aristclochia,  1,  4 
Armeria,  5 
Arnebia,  1 
Arnica,  5 
Arrowwood.     See  Viburnum,  2 

Agapanthus.  6,  7 
Ageratum,  1,  7 
Agrostemma.     See  Lychnis,  1 
Ailanthus,  2 
Ajuga,  5 
Akebia,  2,  4 
Alder.     See  Alnus,  2 
Alder,  Black.     See  Ilex,  3 
Alkanet.     See  Anchusa,  1 
Allamanda,  7 

Artemisia    5 
Arundo,  5 
Ash.     See  Fraxinus.  2 
Ash  Berry.     See  Barberry,  2 
Asparagus.  1,  7 
Asperula.  5 
Asphodeline.  5 
Aspidistra,  7 
Aspidium.  8 
Asphenium,  8 

Allegheny  Vine.     See  Adlumia,  1 

Aster,  1 
Aster,  Stokes.     See  Stokesia,  5 

Allspice.  Carolina.     See  Calycanthus,  2 

Astilbe,  6 
Astrocarpum.  9 

Almond.  2 
Alnus.  2 

Atamasco  Lily.     See  Amaryllis,  6,  7 

Aloysia.  7 
Alsophila.  8 

Attalea.  9 
Aubrieta,  5 

Alstrcemeria.  6 
Alternanthera,  7 

AlTh.-i  ;i.   5 

Auricula.  1,  5 
Australian     Feather     Palm.     See     Ptycho- 

Alum  Boot.     See  Heuchera,  1 
Alyssum.  1,  5.  7 
Amarar.thus.  1 
Amaryllis.  6,  7 

AutifmnaCrocus.     See  Colchicum,  6 
Avens.     See  Geum.  1,  5 
Azalea,  2 

Amazon  Lily.     See  Eucharis.  6,  7 

Q 

Amazon  Vine.     See  Dioscorea,  6 
Amelanchier,  2 
Amorpha,  2 
Amorphophallus,  6 
Ampelopsls,  1.  2,  4 

Baby's  Breath.     See  GypsophlU,  1,  5 
Bactris,  9 
Bacularia,  9 
Bald  Cypress.     See  Taxodium,  2 

3io 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


Balloon  Flower.  1.     See  Platycodon,  5 

Balloon  Vine,  1 

Balsam,  1 

Bane  Berry.     See  Actaea,  5 

Baptisia.  5 

Barberry.  2 

Barkeria,  11 

Barrenwort.     See  Epidedium,  5 

Bartonia.  1 

Basswood.     See  Tilia.  2 

Bastard  Indigo.     See  Amorpha,  2 

Batemania.  11 

Bay.  Giant.     See  Rhododendron,  3 

Bayberry.     See  Myriea,  2 

Bay,  Swamp.     See  Magnolia,  2 

Bean,  Sacred    or    water.     See    Nelumbium, 

Nymphaea,  10 

Beard  Tongue.     See  Pentstemon,  1,  5 
Bear's  Breech.     See  Acanthus,  5 
Bear's  Grass.     See  Yucca,  5 
Beech.     See  Fagus,  2 
Begonia.  1,  6,  7 

Bellflower.     See  Campanula.  1,  5 
Bellis.  1.  5 

Bell,  Silver.     See  Halesia.  2 
Bells.  Coral.     See  Huchera.  1,  5 
Berberis.     See  Barberry,  2 
Betonica  (Bettony).     See  Stachys,  5 
Betula,  2 
Bignonia,  1.  2.  4 
Bilberry.     See  Vaccinium,  2 
Biota.     See  Thuya,  3 
Birch.     See  Betula,  2 
Birthwort.     See    Aristolochia,    1,    Trillium, 

5.  6 

Bittersweet.     See  Celastrus,  1.  4 
Bladdernut.     See  Staphylea.  5 
Bladder  Senna.     See  Colutea.  2 
Blanket  Flower.     See  Gailardia,  1.  5 
Blazing  Star.     See  Liatris.  5 
Bleeding  Heart.     See  Dicentra,  5,  6 
Bletia.  11 
Bloodroot.     See    Sanguinaria.    5,    Hsemodo- 

rum   5 

Blue  Beech.     See  Carpinus,  2 
Bluebell.     See  Campanula.  1,  5 
Blue-eyed  Grass.     See  Sisyrinchium,  5 
Blue  Spiraea.     See  Caryopteris,  5 
Bluets.     See  Houston ia.  5 
Bocconla.  5 
Boltonia.  5 

Boneset.     See  Eupatorium,  5 
Borago.  5 
Borassus.  9 

Boston  Ivy  (Vine).     See  Ampclopsis.  4 
Botrychium.  8 
Bougainvillea.  7 

Bouncing  Bet.     See  Saponaria,  5 
Boussingaultia,  6 
Bouvardia.  7 
Box.     See  Burus.  3 
Box  Thorn.     See  Lycium,  4 
Braehycome,  1 
Brahea.  9 
Brassia.  11 
Bravoa.  6 

Briar.  Sweet.     See  Bosa.  2 
Bridal  Wreath.     See  Spinea.  2 
Broom.  Dyers',   1.    Scotch.     See  Cytisus,   2 
Broughtonia.  11 
Browallia.  1 

Brugmansia.     See  Datura.  1 
Bryonopsis,  1 
Buckeye.     See  Aesculus.  2 
Buckthorn.     See  Rhamnus.  2 
Buffalo  Berry.     See  Shepherdia.  5 
Bugleweed.     See  Ajuga.  5 
Bugbane.  Bugwort.     See  Cimicifuga,  5 


Bulbophyllum.  11 

Bullrush.     See  Juncus,  11 

Burlingtoma,  11 

Burning  Bush.     See  Eunonymus,  2,  4 

Buttercup.     See  Ranunculus,  5.  6 

Butterfly  Flower.     See  Schizanthus,  1 

Butternut.     See  Juglans,  2 

Button  Bush.     See  Cephalanthus,  2 

Bums,  3 

C 

Cabbage  Palm.     See  Areca.  9 
Cabomba,  10 
Cacalia,  1.     See  Senecio 
Cactus.  12 
Caladium.  6,  7 
Calampelis,  1 
Calamus.  9 
Calandrinia.  1 
Calanthe.  11 
Calceolaria,  1 
Calendula.  1 

Calico  Bush.     See  Kalmia,  3 
California  Poppy.     See  Eschscholtzia  1 
Calla.  7.     See  Richardia,  6,  7 
Calliopsis.  1 
Callirrhfie.  5 
Calluna,  3 
Calopogon.  11 
Caltha.  10 
Calycanthus,  2 
Calypso,  11 
Calyptrogyne.  9 
Camomile.     See  AnthemU,  5 
Campanula.  1,  5 
Campernella.     See  Narcissus.  6 
Campion.   Evening.   Rose.     See  Lychnis,  1,  5 
Campion.     See  Silene,  1 
Canary  Vine.  1 
Candle  Berry.     See  Myrica.  2 
Candytuft,  1 
Canna,  1.  6.  7 
Canterbury  Bells,  1 
Caragana.  2 

Cardinal  Flower.     See  Lobelia,  1.  5 
Carnation,  1.  7 
Carpinus.  2 

Carya.     See  Hickory,  2 
Caryopteris,  5 
Caryota.  9 
Cassia.  5 
Chamaedorea,  9 
Chamaerops,  9 

Chamomile.     See  Anethemis.  5 
Chamomile.  False.     See  Boltonia,  5 
Cheilanthes,  8 
Chelone,  5 

Cherry,  Indian.  See  Rhamnus,  2 
Cherry,  Cornelian.  See  Cornus,  2 
Chestnut.  2 

Chilean  Lily.     See  Alstrcemeria,  6 
China  Aster.     See  Aster.  1 
Castalia.     See  Nympha>a.  10 
Castanea.     See  Chestnut.  2 
Castor  Bean.     See  Ricinus.  1 
Catalpa,  2 
Catananche,  5 
Catasetum.  11 
Catehfly.     See  Silene.  1,  5 
Cat-Tail.     See  Typha,  10 
Cattleya,  11 
Ceanothus.  2 

Cedar.     See  Cednis,  3,  .Tuniperus,  3 
Cedrus.  3 
Celastrus.  1.  4 
Celosia,  1 
Celtls.  2 
Centaurea,  1,  5 
Centranthus.  5 


INDEX   TO   PLANT   LISTS 


Centrosema,  1 
Cephalanthus,  2 
Cerastium.  5 
Ceratolobus.  9 
Cercidiphllum,  2 
Cereus,  12 
Ceroxylon,  9 


Cypress,  Bald.     See  Taxodium,  2 
Cypress  Vine.  1 
Cyrtonium,  8 
Cystopteris,  8 
CyOsus,  2 


Certostachys,  9 
Chalk  Plant.     See  Gypsophila,  1,  5 

Daffodil.     See  Narcissus,  6 
Dahlia,   1,  6 

Chamaecyparis,  3 

Daisy.     See  Bellis,  1,  5.  Chrysanthemum.  1,  5 

Chinquapin.  2 

Daisy.  Swan  River.     See  Brachycome,  1 

Chionanthus,  2 

Dame's  Violet.     See  Rocket,  1 

Chinodoxa,  6 

Daphne,  3 

Christmas  Rose.     See  Helleborus.  6 

Datura,  1 

Chrysanthemum,  1,  5,  7 
rnnVifuga,  5 

Davallia,  8 
Day  Lily.     See  Hemerocallis  6,  Funkia.   C 

Cineraria,  1 

CiiiQuefoil.     See  1'otentilla,  5 

Delphinium,  1.  5 

Cistus,  3 
Cladrastis,  2 

Dendrium.     See  Leiophyllum  3 
Dendrobium,  11 

Clarkia,  1 

Deutzla.  2 

Clematis,  1,  4,  5 

Dianthus.    1.     See    Carnation.    1,   Pink,    1, 

Cleone,  1 

Sweet  William,   1,   5 

Clethra.  2 

Dicentra,  5.  6 

Clerodendrom,  7 

Dicksonia,  8 

Clianthus,  1 

Dictamnus.  5 

Clinostigma.  9 

Dictyosperma.  9.     See  Areca,  9 

Clintonia,  5 

Didymosperma,  9 

Cliria,  7 

Dielytra.     See  Dicentra,  6 

Cobaea.  1,  7 

Diervilla,  2 

CoSornb!'  I.     See  Celosia,  1 
Cocoanut.     See  Cocos,  9 

Dieffenbachia.  7 
Digitalis,  1,  5 
Dimorphantus.     See  Aralia,  1 

Cocos,  9 

Dimorphotheca,  1 

Crelogyne,  11 
Colchichum,  6 

Dion,  9 
Dioscorea.  6 

Coleus,  1,  7 

Diplothemium,  9 

Ccllinsia,  1 
Colocasia,  7.     See  Caladium.  7 

Dittany.     See  Dictamnus,  5 

Columbine.     See  Aauilegia,  1.  5                     . 

Dock.  Prairie.     See  Silphium,  5 

Dodecatheon,  5 

Colutea.  2- 

Dog's  Tooth    Violet.     See   Erythoronium,   6 

ass  l'?ant      See  Silphium,  5 

Dogwood.     See  Cornus,  2 
Dolichos    1 

Cone  Flower.     See  Hudbeckia.  1,  5 

Doodia,  8 

Convallaria,  6 

Doronicum,  5 

Convolvulus,  1 

Doryopteris.  8 

CorkTree.  See  Phelodendron,  2 
Corn  Lily,  African.     See  Ixia,  6 

Dracaena,  1.     See  Cordyline 
Dracocephalum.  5 
Dracontium.     See  Amorphophallus.  6 

Cornus,  2 

Dragon's  Head.     See  Dracocephalum.  5 

Corypha,  9 
Cosmos,  1 

Cowslip.81"'  See  Primula  1,    Caltha,   10 

Dragon  Tree.     See  Dracsena.  1 
Drymophlceus.  9 
Dutchman's  Pipe.     See  Aristolochia.   1,  4 
Dypsis,  9 

CraKenern.             "gee  Viburnum,  2 

E 

Cranesbill.     See  Geranium,  1,  7 

Eccremocarpus.     See  Calampelis,  1 

Craiaegus,  2 

Echinocactus.  12 

Crepis,   1                    A     his    5 

Echinocystis.  1 

Echinops.  5 

Crowberry.     See  Empetrum.  2 
Crowfoot.     See  Ranunculus    5.  6 
Crown  Imperial.     See  Fritillaria,  6 
Cuckoo  Flower.     See  Lychnis.  1.  5 
Cucumber  tree.     See  Magnolia.  2 

Echinopsis.  12 
Edelweiss.  1 
Eglantine.     See  Rose,  2,  4 
Eichhornia,  10 
Elseagnus,  2 
Elseis    9 

Cucumis.  1 

Elder.     See  Sambucus.  2 

Cushion  Fl^we"'    See  Scabiosa,  1,  5 
Cyathea.  8 

Elecampane.  5 
Elm.     See  Ulmus,  2 

Empress"Tree.     See  Paulownia,  2 
Epidendrum.  11 

Cyclamen.  1 

Epimedium,  5 

Cymbidium,  11 
Cyperus,  10 
Cyphophoenix,  9 

Epiphyllum.  12 
Eranthis.  6 
Eremurus,  6 

Cyphosperma,  9 
Cyprepidium,  11 

Eryngium  (Eryngo),  5 

3I2 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


Efrythea,  9 

Erythronium,  6 

Eschscholtzia,  1 

Eucharis,  6,  7 

Eulalia.     See  Miscanthus,  5 

Euonymus,  2,  4 

Eupatorium,  5 

Euphorbia,  1 

Euterpe.  9 

Evening  Primrose.     See  Oenothera,  1 

Exochorda.  2 


Fagus,  2 

Feathered  Hyacinth.     See  Muscari,  6 

Fennel  Flower.     See  Nigella,  1 

Flowering  Fem.     See  Osmunda,  8 

Ferns,  1,  8 

Feverfew.     See  Chrysanthemum,  1,  5 

Fig    Marigold     (Ice    Plant).      See    Mesem- 

bryanthemum,  1 

Fir.     See  Abies,  3,  Picea,  3,  Pinus,  3 
Fire-pink.     See  Silene,  1 
Five-finger.     See  Potentilla,  5 
Flag.     See  Iris,  6 
Flax.     See  linum,  1 
Fleabane.     See  Inula.  1,  5 
Flower-de-Luce.     See  Iris,  6 
Flowering  Onion.     See  Allium,  6 
Forget-me-not.     See  Myosotis,  1 
Forsythia    2 

Four  o'clock.     See  Marvel-of-Peru.  1 
Foxglove.     See  Digitalis,  1,  5 
Frangula.     See  Bhamnus,  2 
Fraxinella.     See  Dictamnus,  5 
Fraxinus,  2 

Fringe  Flower.     See  Schizanthus,  1 
Fringe.  Mountain.     See  Adlumnia,  1 
Fringe  Tree,  Fringe,   White.     See  Chionan- 

thus,    2 
Fritillaria,  6 
Fuchsia,  1,  7 
Funkia,  6 


Gaillardia.  1,  5 

Galanthus,  6 

Galega,  5 

Galtonia,  6 

Garland  Flower.     See  Daphne,  3 

Gas  Plant.     See  Dictamnus.  5 

Genista,  7.     See  Cytisus,  2 

Gentiana.  5 

Geonoma,  9 

Geranium.  1.  7 

Geulder  Kose.     See  Viburnum,  2 

Geum,  1,  5 

Gilia,  1 

Gilliflower.     See  Mathiola,  1 

Ginkgo,  2 

Gladiolus,  1.  6 

Gleditschia,  2 

Gleichenia.  8 

Globe  Amaranth.  1 

Globe  Flower.     See  Trollius.   2,  Kerria,   5 

Globe  Ranunculus.     See  Trollius.  2 

Gloriosa,  7 

Glory-of-the-Snow.     See  Chionodoxa,  6 

Gloxinia    1 

Goafs  Beard.     See  Astilbe.  6 

Goafs  Rue.     See  Galege.  5 

Godetia,  1.     See  Oenothera.  1 

Golden  Bell.     See  Forsythia.  2 

Gold  Flower.     See  Hypericum,  2 

Golden  Chain.     See  Laburnum,  2 

Golden  Glow.     See  Rudbeckia.  5 

Golden  Bod,  1 


Gomphrena.     See  Celosia.  I 

Goumi.     See  Eteagnus,  2 

Gourds.  1 

Grape  Hyacinth.     See  Muscari,  6 

Grasswort,    Starry.     See   Cerastium,    5 

Grevillea.  1 

Ground  Cherry.     See  Physalis,  1 

Ground  Nut.     See  Apios,  5,  6 

Gum.  Sour.     See  Nyssa.  2 

Gum.  Sweet.     See  Liquidamber,  2 

Gynmogramma,  8 

Gynerium,  5 

Gypsophila,  1 

H 

Hackberry.     See  Celtis.  2 
Halesia.  2 
Hammamelis.  2 
Hairbell.     See  Campanula,  1 
Harlequin  Flower.     See  Sparaxis,  6 
Haw  (Hawthorn).     See  Crataegus.  2 
Heartsease.     See  Pansy,  1 
Heather.     See  Calluna,  3 
Hedysarum,  5 
Hedyscepe,  9 
Helenium,  1 
Helichrysum,  1 
Heliotrope.  1 
Helleborus,  6 
Hemerocallis.  6 
Hepatica,  5 
Heracleum,  5 
Hesperus.  5 
Heuchcra,  1,  5 
Hibiscus,  1,  7 
Hickory,  2 
Hippeastrum,  6 

Hobble  Bush.     See  Viburnum,  2 
Holly.     See  Ilex,  3 
Holly.  Sea.     See  Eryngium,  5 
Hollyhock,  1,  5 

Honey  Locust.     See  Gleditschia,  2 
Honeysuckle.     See  Lonicera,  2,  4,  Aquilegia 

Hop.     See  Humulus,  1 

Hop  Hornbean.     See  Ostrya,  2 

Hoptree.     See  Ptelia,  2 

Horkelia.     See  Potentilla,  5 

Hornbean.     See  Carpinus.  2 

Horse  Chestnut.     See  Aesculus,  2 

Houstonia,  5 

Howea,  9 

Huraea,  1 

Humulus.  1,  4 

Husk  Tomato.     See  Physalis.  I 

Hyacinth,  Summer.     See  Galtonia,  6 

Hyacinth,  Grape.     See  Muscari,  6 

Hyacinthus.  1,  6 

Hydrangea,  2.  7 

Hydriastele,  9 

Hyophorbae,  9 


I 

Iberis.     See  Candytuft,  1 
Ice  Plant,  1 
Ilex.  3 

Impatiens,  1.     See  Balsam.  1 
Imperial.  Crown.     See  Fritillaria,  6 
Incarvillea,  1 

Indian  Fig.     See  Opuntia,  12 
Indian  Shot.     See  Oanna,  1 
Indigo.     See  Amphorpha,  2 
Ink  Berry.     See  Ilex,  3 
Inula.  1,  5 

1.  4 


INDEX  TO  PLANT  LISTS 


313 


Ipomopsis.     See  Gillia,  1 

Iris.  6 

Iron  Wood.     See  Ostrya,  2 

Itea.  2 

Ivy.     See  Ampelopsis,  1 

Ivv,  English,  1 

I\y.  Kenilworth.     See  Linaria,  5 

Ixia,  6 

Jacobean  Lily.     See  Amaryllis.  6,  7 

Jacob's  Ladder.     See  Polemonium.  5 

Jasminum,  7 

Joe-pye  Weed.     See  Eupatorium,  5 

Jonquil.     See  Narcissus,  6 

Jurxea,  9 

Juglans,  2 

Juncus,  10 

June  Berry,  2 

Juniperus  (Juniper),  3 

Jussicua  (Jussiaea),  10 


Kalmia,  3 

Kaullussia,  1 

Kenilworth  Ivy.     See  Unaria,  5 

Kentia,  9 

Kentiopsis,  9 

Knap  Weed.     See  Centaurea,  1,  5 

Kniphofla,  6.     See    Tritoma,  1 

Knot  Grass  or  Weed.     See  Polygonum,  5 

Kochia,  1 

Ktelreuteria,  2 

Kudzu  Vine,  1.     See  Dolichos 


Lily,   Day.     See  Funkia,  6,  Hemerocallis,  6 

Lily-of-the-VaUey.     See  Convallaria,  6 

Lily,  Water.     See  Nymphjea,  10 

Lily,  Plantain.     See  Funkia.  6 

Lily,    Homestead   Lemon.     See    Hemerocal- 

Lime  Tree.     See  Tilia,  2 

Limnanthemum,  10 

Limnocharis,  10 

Linaria,  5 

Linden.     See  Tilia,  2 

Lanospadii,  9 

Linum,  1 

Liquidambar.  2 

Liriodendron,  2 

Liver  Leaf.     See  Hepatica,  5 

Livistonia,  9 

Lobelia,  1,  5,  7 

Locust  Tree.     See  Robinia,  2,  Gleditschia,  2 

Lodoicea,  9 

Lomaria,  8 

London  Pride.      See  Lychnis,  1,  5 

Lonicera,  2,  4 

Loosestrife.     See  Lysimachia,  5 

Lophospermum.     See  Maurandia,  1 

Lotus-of-the-Nila     See  Nymphaea,   10,   Ne- 

lumbium,    10 

Love-in-a-Mist.     See  Nigella,  1 
Ludwigia,  10 

Lungwort.     See  Mertensia,  5 
Lupinus,  1 
Lycaste,  11 
Lychnis,  1.  5 
Lycium,  4 
Lygodium,  8 

Lyre  Flower.     See  Dicentra,  5,  6 
Lyriophyllum,  10 
Lysimachia.  5 
Lythrum,  5 


Labrador  Tea.     See  Ledum,  3 
Laburnum,  2 

M 

Lady's-Eardrop  Fuchsia,  1 
Lady's-Slipper.     See  Cyprepedium.  11 

Mace.  Reed.     See  Typha,  10 
Madeira  Vine.     See  Boussingaultia,  6 

Laelia,  11 

Madwort.     See  Alyssum,  1,  5 

Lamb  KilL     See  Kalmia,  3 
Lantania,  1,  7,  9 
Lantern  Plant,  Chinese.     See  Physalis,  1 

Magnolia,  2 
Mahonia,  3.     See  Barberry.  2 
Maiden  Hair  Tree.     See  Glnkgo,  2 

Larch.     See  Larix,  2 

Maize.     See  Zea,  1 

Larkspur,  1.     See  Delphinium,  1,  5 

Mallow    1 
Mallow,'  Poppy.     See  CallirhSe,  5 

Lastrea,  8 

Malope,  1 

Latania.     See  Liristonia,  9 

Malva.     See  Mallow,  1 

Lathyrus,  1 

Mammillaria,   12 

Lattice  Leaf.     See  Ouvirandra.  10 
Laurel,  Giant.     See  Rhododendron,  3 

Mandragora,  5 
Mandrake.     See  Mandragora,   5,  Podophyl- 

Laurel,  Mountain.     See  Kalmia,  3 

lum,  5 

LaurestLnus.     See  Viburnum.  2 

Maple,     See  Acer,  2 

Lavandula.     See  Lavender,  1 

Marguerite     (Paris     Daisy).     See    Chrysan- 

themum,   1,    5 

Lavender!  Sea.     See  Statice,  5 
Layia,  1 

Marigold.  1.     See   Tatetes.   1,  Calendula,   1 
Marshmallow.     See  Althua.  5 
Marshmarigold.     See  Caltha,  10 

Lead  Plant.     Amorpha,  2 

Martinezia,  9 

Ledum,  3 

Marvel-of-Peru.  1 

Leiophyllum,  3 

Masdevallia.  11 

Lemon  Verbena,  1 

Matrimony  Vine,     See  Lycium.  4 

Leontopodium.     See  Edelweiss,  1 

Mattholia.  1 

Leopard's  Bane,     See  Doronicum,  5 

Matricaria,  1 

Lepachys.     See  Rudbeckia,  1,  5 

Maurandia,  1 

Leptosiphon,  1 
Leucoium,  6 

Maxiliminia.  9 
Maxillaria.  11 

Leucothoe',  3 

May-Apple.     See  Podophyllum,  5 

Liatris,  5 

Meadow  Rue.     See  Thalictrum,  5 

Licuala,  9 

Meadow  Saffron.     See  Colchicum,  6 

Ligustrum.  2 
Lilac.     See  Syringa,  2 

Meadow  Sweet.     See  Spiraea,  2 
Melocactus,  12 

Lilium,  6 

Menispermum,  2,  5 

Lily,  African.     See  Agapanthus,  7 
Lily-of-the-Nile,     See  Calla,  7 

Mertensia,  5 
Mesembryanthemum.  1 

PLANT    PROPAGATION 


Mexican   Star  of  Bethlehem.     See  Milla,  6 

Mezerium.     See  Daphne,  3 

Michaelmas  Daisy.     See  Aster.  1 

Microstylis.  11 

Mignonette,  1 

Mignonette  Vine.      See   Boussingaultia,   6 

^1  Achillea,  1,  5 

Miltonia,  11 

Mimosa,  1 

Mimulus,  1 

Mina,  1 

Mirabilis.     See  Marvel-of-Peru,  1 

-Miscanthus,  5 

Mock  Orange.     See  Philadelphus.  2 

Momordica,  1 

Monkey-flower.     See  Mimulus,  1 

Monk's  Hood.     See  Aconite,  5 

Montbretia.     See  Tritonia,  6 

Moonflower,  1.  7.     Ipomosa 

Moon  Seed.     See  Menispermum,  2,  5 

Moorwort.     See  Andromeda,  3 

Morning  Glory,  1.     See  Ipomcea 

Mountain  Laurel.     See  Kalmla,  3 

Mountain  Fringe.     See  Adlumia,  1 

Mountain  Tobacco.     See  Arnica.  5 

Mourning  Bride.     See  Scabiosa,  1 

Mouse  Bar.     See  Cerastium,  5 

MuK:2SeeArtemisia-5 

Mullein,  1.     See  Verbascum,  5 

Musa,  1 

Muscari.  6 

Musk  Plant.     See  Mimulus,  1 

Myosotis,  1 

.c»,  2 

rtle.  Sand.     See  Leiophyllum,  3 
'     Burning.     See  Vinca,  1 


Narcissus,  6 

Nasturtium,  1 

Nelumbo.     See  Nelumbium,  10 

Nemesia,  1 

Nemopanthes,  2 

Nemophilia,  1 

Nenga,  9 

Nephrodium,  8 

Nepbrolepis,  8 

Nettle  Tree.     See  Celtis,  2 

Nicotiana,  1 

Nigella,  1 

Ninebark.     See  Spiraea,  2 

Nolana,  1 

Norway  Spruce.     See  Picea,  3 

Nuphar.     See  Nelumbium,  10, 

Nymphsea,  10 

Nyssa,  2 


Oak.     See  Quercus.  2 

Opeliscaria.     See  Budbeckia,  1 

Odontoglossum,  11 

Oenothera,  1 

Old  Woman.     See  Artemisia,  5 

Oleaster.     See  Elseagnus,  2 

Onychium,  8 

Oiicidium,  11 

Opuntia,  12 

Orange.  Mock.     See  Philadelphus,  2 

Ornithogalum,  6 

Orontium,  10 

Osier.     See  Salix,  2.  Cornus,  2 

Osmunda,  8 

Ostrya.  2 

Ourirandra,  10 


Oxalis.  1.  6 
Oxydendrum,  2 


Paeonia,  1,  6 

Pagoda  Tree.     See  Sophora,  2 
Palava,  1 

Palma  Christi.     See  Bichinus    1 
Palmetto.     See  Sabal,  9 
Pampas    Grass.      See    Gynerium,     5,     Mis- 
canthus, 5 
Pandanus,  7 
Pansy,  1 

Papaver.     See  Poppy,  1 
Paris  Daisy.     See  Chysanthemum,  1,  5 
Parsley,    Giant  or  Cow.     See  Heracleum,    5 
Pasque  Flower.     See  Anemone,  1 
Passion  Flower,  1.     See  Passiflora,  7 
Paulownia.  2 

Pea,  Perennial.     See  Lathyrus,  1 
Pea  Tree.     See  Caragana,  2 
Pearl  bush.     See  Exochorda,  2 
Pearls-of-Spain.     See  Muscari,  6 
Pelargonium,  1,  7 
Peltaudra,  10 
Pelecyphora,  12 
Pennisetum,  1 
Pentstemon.  1 
PeresMa,  12 
Perilla,  1 
Periploca.  4 
Petunia,  1 
Phaius,  11 
Phalaenopsis,  11 


Philadelphus,  2 

Phlomis,  5 

Phlox,  1,  5 

Phoenix,  9 

Phyllocactus,  12 

Physalis,  1 

Phytelephas,  9 

Picea,  3 

Pickerel    Weed.      See   Pontederia.    10 

Picotee.     See  Dianthus,  1,  Carnation,  1 

Pilocereus,  12 

Pinanga,  9 

Pina     See  Pinus,  3 

Piney.     See  Pseonia,  1,  Pseony,  6 

Pink,'  Fire,  Wild.     See  Silene,  1.  5 

Pink,  Sea.     See  Statice,  5,  Armeria,  5 

Pink,  Moss.     See  Phlox,  1,  5. 

Pinus,  3 

Plantain.     See  Musa,  1 

Plantain,  Idly.     See  FunMa.  6 

Plantain,  Water.     See  Alisma,  10 

Platycerium,  8 

Platycodon,  1,  5 

Platyloma.  8 

Plectocomia,  9 

Plumbago,  7 

Plume,  Apache.     See  Geum,  1,  5 

Plume.,  Poppy.     See  Bocconia,  5 

Podophyllum,  5 

Poker  Plant.     See  Kniphofla,  6 

Polemonium.  5 

Polianthes,  6,  7 

Polyanthus.  1.     See  Primula,  1 

Polygonatum,  5 

Polygonum,  5 

Polypodium,  8 

Polystiehum.  8 

Pontederia,  10 

Poor  Man's  Orchid.     See  Schizanthus.   I 

Poplar.     See  Populus,  2 

Poppy,  i 


INDEX  TO  PLANT  LISTS 


315 


Poppy  Mallow.     See  Callirhoc,  5 

Poppy,  Plume.     See  Bocconia,  5 

Populus,  2 

Portulaca,  1 

Potentilla,  5 

Prickly  Pear.     See  Opuntia,  12 

Primrose.     See  Primula.  1 

Primrose,  Evening.     Oenothera,  1 

Primula,  1 

Prinos.     See  Ilex,  3 

Pritchardia,  9 

Privet.     See  Ligustrum,  2 

Pseudotsuga,  3 

''telia,  2 

Pteris,  8 

Ptychosperma,  9 

I'ueraria.     See  Dolichos,  1 

I'ulmonaria.     See  Mertensia,  5 

Puschkinia,  6 

Putty  Root.     See  Aplectrum,  11 

I'yrethrum,  1.     See  Chrysanthemum,  1,  5 


Ragged  Robin.     See  Lychnis.  1 

Rainbow  Flower.     See  Iris,  6 

Ranunculus,  6 

Raphia,  9 

Red  Cedar.     See  Juniperus,  3 

Reed,  Giant.     See  Arundo,  5 

Reed,  Grass.     See  Phalaris,  5 

Rehmannia,  1 

Renanthera.     See  Aerides,  11 

Reseda.     See  Mignonette,  1, 

Retinospora,  3 

Rhamnus,  2 

Rhapidophyllum,  9 

Rhapis,  9 

Rheum,  5 

Rhipsalis,  12 

Rhodanthe,  1 

Rhodochiton.  1 

Rhododendron,  3 

Rhopalostylis,  9 

Rhubarb.     See  Rheum,  5 

Richardia,  6,  7 

Ricinus,  1 

Robin,  Ragged.     See  Lychnis,  1,  5 

Robinia.  2 

Rock  Cress.     See  Arabia.  5.  Aubertia.  5 

Rocket,  1 

Rock-rose.     See  Cistus,  3 

Roscheria.  9 

Rose,  Alpine.     See  Rhododendron,  3 
Rose.  Christmas.     See  Helleborus,  6 
Rosemary,  Sea.     See  Statice,  5 
Rose,  Moss.     See  Portulaca,  1 
Rosin  Weed.     See  Silphium,  5 
Rudbeckia,  1,  5 
Running  Myrtle.     See  Vinca.  1 
Rue,  Meadow.     See  Thalictrum,  5 


Sabal.  9 

Saccalobium.  11 

Sage.     See  Salvia,  1.  5 

Sage,  Jerusalem.     See  Phlomis.  5 

Sage  Palm.     See  Cycas,  9 

Sagittaria.  10 

St.  Bruno's  Lily.     See  Anthericum,  7 

St.  John's  Wort.     See  Hypericum,  2 

St.  Peter's  Wort.     See  Symphoricarpus,    2 

Salisburia.     See  Ginkgo,  2 

Balls,  2 


Sambucus,  2 

Sandwort.     See  Arenaria,  5 

Sanguinaria.  5 

Sanseveria,  7 

Saponaria,  5 

Sassafras,  2 

Satyrium,  11 

Saururus,  10 

Savin.     See  Juniperus,  3 

Saxifraga,  5 

Scabiosa,  1.  5 

Scheilea.  9 

Schizanthus,  1 

Scilla,  6 

Scirpus.  10.     See  Juncus,  10 

Scolopendrium,  8 

Scotch  Broom.     See  Cytisus,  2 

Screw  Pine.     See  Pandanus,  7 

Seaforthia,  9.     See  Ptychospema.  9 

Seal  Flower.     See  Dicentura,  5,  6 

Sea  Pink.     See  Armeria,  5 

Selaginella,  8 

Senna,  Bladder.     See  Colutea,  2 

Sensitive  Plant.     See  Mimosa,  1 

Service  Berry.     See  Amelanchier,  2 

Shadbush.     See  Amelanchier.  2 

Sheepberry.     See  Viburnum,  2 

Shepherdia,  5 

Sibbaldia.     See  Potentilla,  2,  5 

Siberian  Pea  Tree.     See  Caragana,  2 

Silene,  1,  5 

Silk  Vine.     See  Periploca,  4 

Silphium,  5 

Silver  Bell.     See  Halesia,  2 

Sinningia.     See  Gloxinia.  1 

Sisyrinchium,  5 

Slipperwort.     See  Campanula,   Calceolaria,  1 

Smoke  Vine.     See  Adlumia.  1 
Snake  Root,  Button.     See  Liatris.  5. 
Snake  Root,  White.     See  Eupatorium,  5 
Snapdragon.     See  Antirrhinum.  1 
Sneezewort.     See  Helenium,  1 
Snowball.     See  Viburnum.  2 
Snowball,  Summer.     See  Hydrangea,  2 
Snowberry.     See  Symphoricarpus.  2 
Snowdrop.     See  Galanthus.  6 
Snowdrop  Tree.     See  Halesia.  2 
Snowflake.     See  Leucoium.  6 
Bo*pwort     See  Saponaria,  5 
Sobralia.  11 

Solomon's  Seal.     See  Polygonatum,  5 
Sophora.  2 

Sorrel  Tree.     See  Oxydendrum.  2 
Sour  Gum.     See  Nyssa.  2 
Southern  Wood.     See  Artemisia,  5 
Sowbread.     See  Cyclamen.  1 
Spanish  Bayonet.     See  Yucca,  5 
Sparaxis.  6 

Speedwell.     See  -Veronica.  5 
Spindle  Tree.     See  Euonymus,  2,  4 
Spiraea,  2 

Spire  Lily.     See  Galtonia,  6 
Spruce.      See    Picea,    3.    Abies,    3,    Pseudo- 
tsuga, 3 

Spurge.     See  Euphorbia,  1 
Squill.     See  Scilla.  6 

lUl,  Striped.     See  Puschkinia,  6 

Tree.     See  Celastrus,  1 

11 

aphylea.  5 

tar  Flower.     See  Triteleia.  6 
Star,  Blazing.     See  Liatris.  5 
Star,  Shooting.     See  Dodecatheon,  S 
Star-of- Bethlehem.      See  Ornithogalum,    6 
Starwort.     See  Aster,  1 
5 


PLANT    PROPAGATION 


See  Matthiola,  1 


Bill.     See  Geranium,    1,   7,    Pelar 
gonium.  1,  7 

Strawberry  Bush.     See  Euonymus.  2,  4 
Strawberry  Geranium.     See  Saxafraga,  5 
Strawberry  Tomato.     See  Physalis,  1 
Stuartia,  2 
Styrax,  2 
Succory,  I 
Sundrops. 
Sunflower,  1 

Susan,  Black-Eyed.     See  Rudbeckia,  5 
Swainsona,  1,  7 

Swan  River  Daisy.     See  Brachycome,  1 
Sweet  Briar.     See  Rose,  2,  4 
Sweet  Flag.     See  Acorus,  2 
Sweet  Pea.     See  Lathyrus,  1 
Sweet  Scented   Shrub.     See   Calycanthus,    2 
Sweet  Sultan,  1 
Sweet  William.  1,  5 
Sword  Lily.     See  Gladiolus,  1,  6 
Symphoricarpus,  2 
Symplocos,  2 

Syringa.     See  Philadelphus,  2 
Syringa  (Lilac),  2 


Tagetes,  1 

Tamarack.     See  Larix,  2 

Tamarisk.     See  Tamarlx,  2 

Tansy,  5 

Taro.     See  Caladlum,  6.  7 

Taxodium.  2 

Taxus,  3 

Tea,  New  Jersey.     See  Ceanothus,  2 

Tecoma.     See  Bignonia,  1,  2,  4 

Thalictrum,  5 

Thistle,  Globe.     See  Echinops,  5 

Thoroughwort.     See  Eupatorium,  5 

Thorn.     See  Cratsegus,  2 

Thorn,  Box.     See  Lyclum,  4 

Thrinax,  9 

Thunbergia,  1,  7 

Thunia,  11 

Tickfs'eed.  See  Coreopsis,  1.  5 
Tiger  Flower.  See  Tigridia,  6 
Idia,  6,  7 


See  Linaria,  5 
Torenia,  1 
Trachycarpus,  9 
Trapa,  10 

Tree-of-HeaTen.     See  Allanthus,  2 
Trichopilia,  H 
Trillium,  o,  6 

Triplet  Lily.     See  Triteleia,  6 
Triteleia,  6 

Tritoma.     See  Kniphofia,  6 
Tritonia,  5,  6 
Trolllus.  5 
Tropaeolum,  1 

Trumpet  Creeper.     See  Bignonia,  1 
Tuberose.     See  Polianthes,  6,  7 
Tulipa  (Tulip),  6 
Tulip  Tree.     See  Liriodendron,  2 
Tulepo  Tree.     See  Nyssa,  2 
Turtlehead.     See  Chelone,  5 
Typha,  10 


Ulmus,  2 

Umbrella  Plant.  See  Cyperus,  10 
Umbrella  Tree.  See  Magnolia.  2 
Uvularia.  5 


Vaccinium,  2 


Valerian,  1 

A'alerian,  Red.     See  Centhranthus,  5 

Vanda,'ll 

A-anilla,  11 

Varnish  Tree.     See  Koelreuteria,  2 

Veltchia,  9 

Verbascum,  5 

Verbena.  1.  7 

Verbena,  Sand.     See  Abronia,  1 

Verbena,  Scented  or  Lemon.     See  Aloysia,  1 

Veronica.  5 

A'erschaffeltia,  9 

Vetch,  Bitter.     See  Lathyrus,  1 
A'etchling.     See  Lathyrus,  1 
Viburnum,  2 
Victoria,  10 

A'ine.  'Smoke.     See  Adlumia,  1 
A'iolet,  1 

A'iolet.  Dame's.     See  Rocket,  1 
A'irgilia.     See  Cladrastls,  2 
A'irginia  Creeper.     See  Ampelopsis.   1,   2,  4 
A'irginian  Stock,  1 

A'irgin's  Bower.     See  Clematis,  1,  4,  5 
la,  1.     See  Lychnis,  1 

i  Clerodendron,  7 


Wahoo.     See  Euonymus,  2,  4 

Wahlenbergia.     See  Platycodon.  1,  5 

Wake-Robin.     See  Trillium,  5,  6 

Wall  Cress.     See  Arabia,  5 

AVallflower,  1 

Wallichia,  9 

Walnut.     See  Juglans,  2 

Washingtonia,  9 

AVater  Lily.    See  Nymphaea,  10,  Nelumbium, 

10,  A'ictoria,    10. 

Waxberry.     See  Symphoricarpus.  2 
AVayfaring  Tree.     See  Viburnum,  2 
AVeigela.     See  Diervilla,  2 
Whin.     See  Cytisus,  2 
AATiite  Cape  Hyacinth.     See    Gallon!*,    6 
White  Rod.     See  Alburnum,  2 
AVhite  Wood.     See  Liriodendron.   2,  Tilit,  2 
AA'ild  Bean.     See  Apios.  4.  5,  6 
Wild  Senna.     See  Cassia,  5 
AA'illow.     See  Salix,  2 
Willow,  A'irginian.     See  Itea,  2 
Windflower.     See  Anemone.  1.  5.  6 
AVinter  Aconite.     See  Eranthis,  6 
AVinter  Cherry.     See  Physalis,  1 
Wistaria,  1,  2,  4 

Wistaria,  Tuberous-Rooted.     See  Apioi,  6 
AA'itch-Hazel.     See  Hamamelis,  2 
Wolf-Bane.     See  Aconitem,  5 
AVoodbine.     See  Ampelopsis,  1.  2,  4 
AVood  Hyacinth.     See  Scilla,  6 
AVormwood,  3 


Xanthoceras.  2 
Xiphion.     See  Iris.  6 


Tarrow.     See  Achillea,  1,  5 
Tellowwood.     See  Cladrastis,  2 
Tew.     See  Taxus,  3 
Yulan.     See  Magnolia,  2 


Zea    1 

Zebra  Grass.     See  Miscanthus,  5 

Zephyranthes,  6,  7 

Zinnia,  1 

Zizania,  10 

Zygopetalum,  11 


INDEX  TO  PLANT  LISTS 
PROPAGATION  OF  VEGETABLES  FROM  SEEDS 


317 


Kinds  of  Vegetables 

c 

OJ 

4 

1 

< 

X 

c 

3 

| 

4 

i. 

£ 

J 

1 

A 

p 

B 

B 

Artichoke,  Jerusalem 

- 

F 

A 
A 

A 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

Balm 

£ 

B 

p 

Beans,   bush  
Beans,   pole   and   lima 
Beets  

G 

G 

G 

¥ 

A 
I" 

C 

A 

A 

C 

A 
A 

C 

A 

A 
A 

— 

= 

- 

- 

Broccoli  
Brussels    Sprouts  
Cabbage,   all  kinds.  .. 

E 

E 
E 

E 

E 

B 

B" 

B 
B 
B 

B 
B 
B 

— 

H 
H 

H 
H 

= 

- 

Carrot 

Q 

(; 

F 

A 

\ 

Cauliflower  

G 

E 

E 

B 

B 

B 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Chard     Swiss  "' 

E 

E 

1 

A 

A 

A 

Chervil  



r 

r 

c 

r 

r 

T 



Chicory  
Collard  
Corn,   field  

- 

" 

F 

A 
A 

A 
1 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

— 

Corn,   pop  

Corn     salad 

— 

— 

F 

A 
A 

A 
A 

A 
A 

H 

Corn,   sweet  



_  _ 

r 

c 

r 

r 

A 







Cucumber  

G 

G 

G 

E 

A 

A 

G 

G 

— 

— 

— 

Eggplant  
Endive  
Fennel  
Kohl  Rabi  

G 

G 

A 
E 

B 
A 
B 

B 
A 

B 

B 

B 

B 
B 

A 

I 

= 

— 

= 

Leek  

7} 

r. 
F 

E 

F 

B 

R 

B 
C 

B 

r 

r 

A 

I 

T 

H 

Mangel^.  

jj 

j-j 

F 
PI 

A 

£ 

A 

p 

A 

T 

G 

— 

Martynia  
Melon,  musk  
Melon,  water   
Mushroom  
Mustard  
Nasturtium  
Okra  

G 
G 

» 

c; 
G 

K 
M 

G 
G 
L 

M 

E 

E 
E 

A 
A 

E 

A 

A 
A 

A 
A 
C 

A 
A 
A 

A 
~C 

i 

cf 

G 
G 
L 
A 

K 
A 

K 
M 

K 
M 

i 

Onion  
Parsley 

G 

r, 

F 

A 

1 

A 

A 

_ 

_ 

. 

, 

_ 

Parsnip  

F 

A 

A 

A 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Pea  .  .    

— 

- 

F 

C 

C 

C 

G 

A 

— 

A 

— 

— 

Peppergrass  

M 

M 

M 

M 

A 

A 

- 

— 

M 

M 

M 

M 

Pumpkin  
Radish  
Radish,   winter  

M 

M 

M 

E 
D 

A 
I) 

A 
D 

A 

A" 

J 
^ 

7 





Sage  
Salsify  

- 

— 

F 

£ 

A 
B 

B 

- 

- 

A 

A 

- 

- 

- 

Scorzonera  

— 

— 

F 

A 

A 

A 

Sea  kale  
Skirret  

_ 

E 

E 
F 

B 
A 

B 

A 

— 

I 

I 
C 

I 

— 

— 

PLANT    PROPAGATION 
PROPAGATION  OF  VEGETABLES  FROM  SEEDS 


Kinds  of  Vegetables 

c 

£ 

I 

£ 

< 

U. 

1 

I 

X 

(i 

p 
< 

1" 

O 

2 

3 

Squash  

_ 

F 

F 

I 

A 

_ 

_ 

Thyme  
Tomato 

G 

G 

E 
E 

B 
B 

B 

B 

B 

— 

G 

G 

G 

— 

-r 

Turnip  

A 

A 

A 

A 

. 

' 

Witloof  

— 

A 

A 

A 

— 

— 

— 

— 

r— 

KEY  TO  VEGETABLE  PROPAGATION  TABLE 

A.  Sow  in  open  ground;  thin  plants  to  proper  distances. 

B.  Sow  in  garden  seed   bed  and  transplant  to  permanent  quar 


Sow  twice  in  open  ground   during  month. 

D.  Sow  thrice  in  open  ground   during  month. 

E.  Start  in   hotbed;    plant   in   open   when   weath 

F.  Sow  outdoors  as  soon   as  open  ground  can  b 
G.  Grow  only  in  hotbed  or  greenhouse. 

H.      Sow  in  coldframe;   protect   winter;  plant  ou 

/.  Sow  in  open  ground;   protect   with  litter  duri 

7.  Plant  in  frar 


r   and   soil  favor. 


in  spring, 
g  winter, 
s  during  cold  weather. 


ime;  cover  with  sash  and  stras 

Plant  in  cellar,   barn  or  under  benches  in  greenhouse. 
L.       Plant  out-doors  in  prepared  beds. 
M.     Sow  weekly  in  greenhouse  or  frame  for  succession. 
Note  ].      For  last  planting  of  bean,  sweet  corn,  kohl  rabi,  pea,  radish,  and  tomato 


Note  2.     Late   sowings  of   salsify   and   scorzonera   may  remain   unprotected   in 
ground  over  winter.     Roots  will  be  larger  following  fall  than  spring-sown  ones. 


INDEX 


A 

Page 

Budding      whistle 

Page 
266 

Acids     in     germination  

.  .  .  .     27 

Budding    winter 

266 

Annuals,     defined  
Apples      dwarf 

5 
195 

Budding,    wood  

258 

Apple    stock    for    pear  
Apple    stocks  
Art,      definition  

.  ...    190 
.  .  .  .    192 
1 

C 

Cactus    grafting  

251 
100 

Callus    pits.. 

119 

B 

1  18 

Caulicle,    defined  

20 

153 

27 

189 

Bandages,     waxed  

224 
225 

Cherry   grafting  

205 

Buds    grafted  

.  ...   250 

Chimeras,     plant  

181 

Biennials,     defined  
"Blind     Eyes"  

25 
....        5 
.  ...    100 

Cicatrization    
Cion,   defined  
Cion     fumigation  

161 
132 
277 

143     189 

219 

Borlase's     seed    analysis  
Bottom     heat  
Briailles,    de,    on    graft    storing 

.  ...     41 
86 
.  .  .  .   225 
230 

Cion   shipping,   long  distance  
Citrus    propagation  
Close  on  top  grafting  

220 
207 
238 
253 

Browning    of    cuttings  

....    118 
104 

Corbett  on   "blind  eyes"  

101 
77 

Buds,     latent  -. 

.  .  .  .    105 
105 

Cotyledons,  number  or  

8 
273 

70 

192 

Bulb    industry    in    U     S 

.     80 

156 

Bulblets,    production     of  
Bulblet    synonyms  
Bulb     propagation,     easier    lily 
Bulbs,    care    of  
Bulbs,    classes    of  
Bulbs,    "Dutch"    defined  
Budded     stock,     spring     care.  . 

.  .  .  .      72 
....     71 
73 
..78,    79 
.  .  .  .     73 
71 
.  .  .  .   263 
.   265 

Crocker,    on    delayed   germination.. 
"Crocks"    defined  
Crown,    defined  
Cummings,  on  seed  size  
Cuttage,    defined  
Cutting,  storage  
Cuttings,  budding  greenwood  

38 
62 
81 
36 
95 
122 
126 
118 

Budding    apples  
Budding    cherry  

.  .  .  .   264 
.  .  .  .   205 
265 

Cuttings,    burying  
Cuttings,    classes   of  

121 
111 

1  18 

R    HrT    ^^       H                f 

255 

125 

Budding,    flute  
Budding,  H-  

.  ...   265 
.  ...   265 
263 

Cuttings    for    dwarf    plants  
Cuttings,   influence  of  climate  on.. 

119 
97 
122 

R    HH'                      th    H 

255 

129 

Budding  old  peach  trees  
Budding,     plate  
Budding,    prong  

,  .  .  .   266 
.  ...   264 
.  ...   265 
265 

Cuttings,   long   kept    alive  
Cuttings,  mature  wood  
Cuttings,  parts  used  for  green.... 

128 
114 
124 
11  1 

Budding     shield 

256 

114 

256 

111 

...  *'         ,    . 

266 

C'   tf*         ' 

118 

Budding,     veneer.  .  . 

..   265 

Cuttings,  semi-hardwood.., 

121 

310 


320 


INDEX 


Page  Pas* 

Cuttings,    shipping 106        Graft-wrapping  experiments 224 

Cuttings,  soft  wood 123,  125        Graftage,  classification 227,  229 

Cuttings,   stem 114        Graftage,  defined 131 

Cuttings,  transplanting 123         Graftage,  importance  of 136 

Cycle,  duration  of  life 4         Graftage     laws 160 

Cycle,     life 3        Graftage,   limits 147 

Graftage,   necessity   of 133 

D  Graftage,  nurserymen's   reasons   for  182 

Damages  from  tree  sales 290         Graftage,  objects  of 132 

Damping-off    51         Graftage,    rules 149 

Daniel's   generalizations 159        Graftage,    unnatural 155 

Degrully,    on    grape    grafting 212         Graftage  vs   cuttage 156 

De  Meulder,  on  hyacinth  propaga-  Grafted  plants  short  lived 156 

tion :..;.;.    .     75        Grafted    vs    seedling    orchards 157 

Depth    to    plant 25        Grafting,    adjuvant 253 

Dibbling,    in     grafts 236         Grafting,    a    makeshift 155 

Digging     stock 270        Grafting,     bridge 230 

Division,    defined 80        Grafting,     cactus 251 

Doucin  stocks 194        Grafting,  cherry 205 

Double   working 196        Grafting,     cleft 239,  244 

Dressings    for   wounds 226        Grafting,   crown 247 

Duvel,    seed   table 49        Grafting,    cutting 248 

Dwarf   apple    stocks    194         Grafting,  Daniel   on   mixed 252 

Dwarf  plants  from  cuttings 119         Grafting,   denounced 154 

Dwarfing   195        Grafting,    end-to-end 253 

Grafting,   fruit  bud 253 

E  Grafting     grapes 211,212,213 

Eggplant,    grafted 251        <£[{™f.  h^eous 166>  ™> 

i3 

::::::::::  ,S  S5S$iEE5 

-p  Grafting,  saddle 253 

Grafting,    side 246 

Fertilization     of    flowers Grafting,  speed  in    241 

Fertilization,   process   of  flower Grafting,   splice 248 

Filing  seeds   for  sprouting 28        Grafting,    top ..238 

Fire     fanging 93         Grafting,    tubes 249 

"Flagging"     of    cuttings 125         Grafting,    veneer 244 

Flat,  defined 63        Grafts,   classes  of 160 

Flower,   essential   organs 8  Grafts,    in    moss    and    charcoal....   225 

Flower    pots 56         Grafts,    piece    root 232 

Fraser,  quoted    187        Grafts    whole  root 232 

Freezing     seeds 31         Grades    of    trees 282 

Fumigation,    cions 277        Grape  grafting 211,212,  213 

Fumigation,     greenhouse 278         Grape,     grafting,     green 253 

Fumigation,    house 277         Grape    stock   influence 215 

Green,  S    B.,  on  summer  propa- 

<*  gation     97 

Galloway,  on  seed  size 36         Greiner,  on  rose  ringing 118 

Gazeau,  on  strawberry  propagation       69         Growth,    cause     of    length 20 

Geotropism    171 

Germination,    aids    to 27  H 

Germination,    defined 20        Hansen,    quoted 194 

Germination,     delayed 36,  38        Heat,    bottom 86 

Germination    factors 21         Hedrick,   quoted 176,    195,   201 

Germplasm    175         Henderson's,  potting  record  at 57 

Graft    breakage 141  Hermann,  Van,  on  eggplant  grafting  251 

Graft,   effects  on  seed 171         Hilum,     defined 8 

Graft   hybrids 1S1         Horse   radish   from   seed 8 

Graft  storage 236        Hoskins,   on   nut  vitality 35 


321 


Page 

Howard,  on  seed  rest  period 15 

Hyacinth     propagation 75 

Hybrid,    defined 9 

Hybridization,    asexual 173 

Hypocotyl,  defined 20 


Inarching    227,  229 

Incubator,    grafts    in 237 

Inlaying    247 

Irons,     grafting 241 

Inspection    legislation,    uniform 

nursery      289 


Oven,  propagating 

Ovule    structure 

Oxygen,  in  germination. 


Page 
.  89 
.  9 
.  25 


Kerr,    quoted    , 

Knives,  budding 

Knives,     grafting 

Knocking-out,  defined... 


Layerage,    defined 

Layering,    kinds    of 

Laws,    nursery 

Leroux,  on  apple  stocks. 
Lettuce,  transplanting... 
Light  hinders  germinatii 
Lilies,  Easter,  from  seed. 

Lily  disease 

Lopping    tops 


201 
260 
232 


64 

. ..  64 
...  287 
. ..  189 

. ..  60 
24,  25 
. ..  74 
...  74 
. ..  209 


Machine    for    graft    wrapping 235 

Macoun,  on  Northern  Spy  seedlings  136 

Markey's     potting     record 57 

Morse,    on    dodder 43 

Micropyle,  defined 7 

Moisture     regulation 100 

Moss    for    graft    storing 225 

"Moss,"    on    potted    plants 63 

Myers,    on    seed    testing 50 


Packing,   for  shipment 284 

Paradise    stocks 194 

Peach    stocks 199 

Peach,  topworking 266 

Pedigreed    trees 183,186 

Pear    on    apple   stocks 190 

Pear  on  quince 189,  196 

Pear,    propagation 198 

Pear  stocks,   origin  of 197 

Pears,  spring  budded 199 

Tears,   Yeoman's   dwarf 164 

Perennials,    defined 5 

Pericarp,    kinds    of 10 

Phloem,    defined 146 

Phylloxena    215 

Pistil,   structure   of 9 

Plants    by    mail 287 

Plants,  snipping 106 

Plum     stocks 199 

Potatoes,     grafted 250 

Potato,    quick    propagation 84 

Potato,   sweet,   propagation 84 

Pot   bound    plants 63 

Pots,  double 

Potting,  care  in 

Potting,    dangers 

Potting,   defined 

Potting,    operation    of 

Potting,   soil 

Propagation,  classes  of   

Propagation,    natural , 

Pricking-out 


Protection     in     nurseries 275 


Quince    for  pear 196 


Nowoczek,  on  re-germination 33 

Nursery,   cover   crops 273 

Nursery,     management 269 

Nursery,  laws 2~7 

Nursery,    laying   out 269 

Nursery,  soils 270 

Nursery,   stock   buying 2SO 

Nursery,  stock  by  mail 2^7 

Nursery    stock,    cost 230 

Nursery  stock  diseases 290 

Nursery    stock    storing 275 

Nursery,  winter  protection  in 275 


Offset,  denned   81 

Oliver,  on  keeping  cuttings  alive.  128 

Oliver,  on   Mango  budding 254 

Optimum  of  growth  factors 22 


Radicle,   defined 2! 

Raffia,    defined 225 


ing  browning. 


119 


R> 
Rj 
Rec 

c'on   

Re-germination  of  seeds... 

Repair    grafting 

Reviere  on   stocks 

Rhizome     cuttings 

Rhizome,  defined 

Ringing  roses 118 

Roberts,    on    nursery    soils 272 

Root    grafted    vs    budded    trees....   216 

Root   grafting 231 

Root  grafts,  making 233 

Root  grafts,  whole 232 

Roots    on    stem    cuttings 106 

Roots,     origin     of 102 


grape    grafting 215 


167 
38 
230 
189 
114 
80 


322 


INDEX 


Root    vs    top    grafting 237 

Rose  cuttings 118 

Rose,   ringing 118 

Rose,    stocks 206,  207 

Roses,    grafted,     for    forcing 207 

Rosette,  defined 83 

Rubber  for  grafting 224 

Runner,  defined 68 

S 

Sablon,  Le  Clerc  du,  quoted..    181,  196 

Scalding     seeds 33 

Science,  definition 1 

Scott,    on    grafted    roses 207 

Screens  for  shading 109 

Seed   analysis 41 

Seed,   defined 7 

Seed   dissemination 12 

Seed  freezing 31 

Seed,   graft   characters    from 171 

Seed,    longevity    in    Missouri 35 

Seed,    losses    from    low    grade. ...  42 

Seed  pans 56 

Seed,    regermination 38 

Seed,  size   influence 36 

Seed,  soaking. 32 

Seed,    testing 40 

Seed-testing   conveniences 45 

Seed-testing    questions 214 

Seed,   transportation 13 

Seed,  vitality 34,  35 

Seedlings,    apple 191 

Seeds,    fictitious    age    of 12 

Seeds,    rest   period   of 14 

Seeds,    scalding 33 

Seeds,    sowing    very    small 26 

Seeds,  unreliability  of 135 

Separation  71 

Shading   108 

Shelters   269 

Shifting  plants 6 

Shipping   plants    and   trees 284 

Smith    Bros,    quoted 201 

Smith's   English  grafting 248 

Soil   for  potting 54 

Somatoplasm     175 

Sowing,    time    of 23 

Spore,  defined    6 

Sport,    defined 112 

Spraying,    nursery    stock 277 

Standard,    defined 191 

Standardization    of  nursery  stock..  283 

Stewart,    quoted 186,  218 

Stock   and   cion   reciprocal   influence  167 

Stock  breeding,  necessity  for 184 

Stock,    defined 132 

Stock,   effect   of   small   growing 189 

Stock,  effects  on  cion 176 

Stock     plants,    defined 100 

Stocks,   apple 192 


Page 

Stocks,  cherry  ..........  .  ----  201,  204 

Stocks,   citrus  ....................  209 

Stocks,    for     fruit    trees  ..........  176 

Stocks,    for    weeping    trees  ........  190 

Stocks,  French   investigators  on  ____  189 

Stocks,   hardy,    for   tender    varieties  189 

Stocks,   in    top   grafting  ...........  186 

Stocks,  peach  ....................  199 

Stocks,  pear   ....................  197 

Stocks,    plum  ....................  199 

Stocks,    quince  ...................  195 

Stocks,    rose  .....................  206 

Stocks,     slow     maturing  ..........  189 

Stolon,  defined  ...................  80 

Stratification    ....................  29 

Strawberry    propagation,     rapid....  69 

String,  waxed  ...................  223 

Stringfellow  on  sucker  influence  ____  266 

Sucker  influence  ..................  266 

Suckers,  defined  ..............  ,  .  .  .  101 


Temperature  in  germination  .......  23 

Tomato    propagation  ..............  60 

Top     grafting  ....................  238 

Trabut,    on    grape   grafting  ........  215 

Trees,    own    rooted  ...............  191 

Trial    grounds,    value    of  ..........  41 

Tuber   cuttings  ...................  112 

Tuber,    defined  ...................  84 

Tubes     grafting  ..................  249 


Union,  physical  strength  of...    141,   143 


Variation,    bud,    defined 112 

Viala,  on   cutting  browning 119 

Vilmorin    seed    table 49 


Water    in    germination 

Water  sprouts   defined 

Wax,     grafting 

Wax,    use    of 

Wellhouse,  quoted 


22 
101 
220 
150 
219 
33 

Whilten,  on  seed  rest  period 15 

Whole  vs  piece  root. 218 

Wound  dressings 226 


Xylem,  defined 147 


Yeoman's  dwarf  pears 164 


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First  Principles  of  Soil  Fertility 

By  ALFRED  VIVIAN.  There  is  no  subject  of  more  vital 
importance  to  the  farmer  than  that  of  the  best  method 
of  maintaining  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  The  very  evident 
decrease  in  the  fertility  of  those  soils  which  have  been 
under  cultivation  for  a  number  of  years,  combined  with 
the  increased  competition  and  the  advanced  price  of  labor, 
have  convinced  the  intelligent  farmer  that  the  agriculture 
of  the  future  must  be  based  upon  more  rational  practices 
than  those  which  have  been  followed  in  the  past.  We 
have  felt  for  some  time  that  there  was  a  place  for  a 
brief,  and  at  the  same  time  comprehensive,  treatise  on 
this  important  subject  of  Soil  Fertility.  Professor  Vivian's 
experience  as  a  teacher  in  the  short  winter  courses  has 
admirably  fitted  him  to  present  this  matter  in  a  popular 
style.  In  this  little  book  he  has  given  the  gist  of  the 
subject  in  plain  language,  practically  devoid  of  technical 
and  scientific  terms.  It  is  pre-enr'.iently  a  "First  Book," 
and  will  be  found  especially  valuable  to  those  who  desire 
an  introduction  to  the  subject,  and  who  intend  to  do  subse- 
quent reading.  Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  265  pages.  Cloth. 

Net,  $1.00 

The  Study  of  Corn 

3y  PROF.  V.  M.  SHOESMITH.  A  must  helpful  book  to  all 
farmers  and  students  interested  in  the  selection  and  im- 
provement of  corn.  It  is  profusely  illustrated  from  photo- 
graphs, all  of  which  carry  their  own  story  am'  contribute 
their  part  in  making  pictures  and  text  mattei  a  clear,  con- 
cise and  interesting  study  of  corn.  Illustrated.  5x7  inches. 
too  pages.  Cloth Net,  $0.50 


Soils 

By  CHARLES  WILLIAM  BURKETT,  DirecW  Kansas  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station.  The  most  complete  and 
popular  work  of  the  kind  ever  published.  As  a  rule,  a 
book  of  this  sort  is  dry  and  uninteresting,  but  in  this  case 
it  reads  like  a  novel.  The  author  has  put  into  it  his  in- 
dividuality. The  story  of  the  properties  of  the  soils,  their 
improvement  and  management,  as  well  as  a  discussion  of 
the  problems  of  crop  growing  and  crop  feeding,  make  this 
book  equally  valuable  to  the  farmer,  student  and  teacher. 
Illustrated.  303  pages.  5^x8  inches.  Cloth.  .  Net,  $1.25 

Weeds  of  the  Farm  Garden 

By  L.  H.  PAMMEL.  The  enormous  losses,  amounting 
to  several  hundred  million  dollars  annually  in  the  United 
States,  caused  by  weeds  stimulate  us  to  adopt  a  better 
system  of  agriculture.  The  weed  question  is,  therefore, 
a  most  important  and  vital  one  for  American  farmers. 
This  treatise  will  enable  the  farmer  to  treat  his  field  to 
remove  weeds.  The  book  is  profusely  illustrated  by  photo- 
graphs and  drawings  made  expressly  for  this  work,  and 
will  prove  invaluable  to  every  farmer,  land  owner,  gar- 
dener and  park  superintendent.  5x7  inches.  300  pages. 
Cloth Net,  $1.50 

Farm  Machinery  and  Farm  Motors 

By  J.  B.  DAVIDSON  and  L.  W.  CHASE.  Farm  Machinery 
and  Farm  Motors  is  the  first  American  book  published 
on  the  subject  of  Farm  Machinery  since  that  written  by 
J.  J.  Thomas  in  1867.  This  was  before  the  development 
of  many  of  the  more  important  farm  machines,  and  the 
general  application  of  power  to  the  work  of  the  farm. 
Modern  farm  machinery  is  indispensable  in  present-day 
farming  operations,  and  a  practical  book  like  Farm  Ma- 
chinery and  Farm  Motors  will  fill  a  much-felt  need.  The 
book  has  been  written  from  lectures  used  by  the  authors 
before  their  classes  for  several  years,  and  which  were  pre- 
pared from  practical  experience  and  a  thorough  review  of 
the  literature  pertaining  to  the  subject.  Although  written 
primarily  as  a  text-book,  it  is  equally  useful  for  the  prac- 
tical farmer.  Profusely  illustrated.  5^2x8  inches.  520 
pages.  Cloth Net,  $2.00 

The  Book  of  Wheat 

By  P.  T.  DONDLINGER.  This  book  comprises  a  complete 
study  of  everything  pertaining  to  wheat.  It  is  the  work 
of  a  student  of  economic  as  well  as  agricultural  condi- 
tions, well  fitted  by  the  broad  experience  in  both  practical 
and  theoretical  lines  to  tell  the  whole  story  in  a  condensed 
form.  It  is  designed  for  the  farmer,  the  teacher,  and  the 
student  as  well.  Illustrated.  Sj^xS  inches.  370  pages. 

Cloth Net,  $2.00 

(4) 


The  Cereals  in  America 

By  THOMAS  F.  HUNT,  M.S.,  D.AgrL  Professor  ef  Agron- 
omy, Cornell  University.  If  you  raise  five  acres  of  any  kind 
of  grain  you  cannot  afford  to  be  without  this  book.  It  is  in 
every  way  the  best  book  on  the  subject  that  has  ever  been 
written.  It  treats  of  the  cultivation  and  improvement  of  every 
grain  crop  raised  in  America  in  a  thoroughly  practical  and 
accurate  manner.  The  subject-matter  includes  a  comprehen- 
sive and  succinct  treatise  of  wheat,  maize,  oats,  barley,  rye, 
rice,  sorghum  (kafir  corn)  and  buckwheat,  as  related  particu- 
larly to  American  conditions.  First-hand  knowledge  has  been 
the  policy  of  the  author  in  his  work,  and  every  crop  treated  is 
presented  in  the  light  of  individual  study  of  the  plant.  If  you 
have  this  book  you  have  the  latest  and  best  that  has  been 
written  upon  the  subject.  Illustrated.  450  pages.  554x8 
inches.  Cioth $J  ?5 

The  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America 

By  THOMAS  F.  HUNT.  This  book  is  exactly  what  its  title 
indicates.  It  is  indispensable  to  the  farmer,  student  and 
teacher  who  wishes  all  the  latest  and  most  important  informa- 
tion on  the  subject  of  forage  and  fiber  crops.  Like  its  famous 
companion,  "The  Cereals  in  America,"  by  the  same  author,  it 
treats  of  the  cultivation  and  improvement  of  every  one  of  the 
forage  and  fiber  crops.  With  this  book  in  hand,  you  have 
the  latest  and  most  up-to-date  information  available.  Illus- 
trated. 428  pages.  5^x8  inches.  Cloth.  ....  $175 

The  Book  of  Alfalfa 

History,  Cultivation  and  Merits.  Its  Uses  as  a  Forage 
and  Fertilizer.  The  appearance  of  the  Hon.  F.  D.  COBURN'S 
little  book  on  Alfalfa  a  few  years  ago  has  been  a  profit  revela- 
tion to  thousands  of  farmers  throughout  the  country,  and  the 
increasing  demand  for  still  more  information  on  the  subject 
has  induced  the  author  to  prepare  the  present  volume,  which 
is  by  far  the  most  authoritative,  complete  and  valuable  work 
on  this  forage  crop  published  anywhere.  It  is  printed  on  fine 
paper  and  illustrated  with  many  full-page  photographs  that 
were  taken  with  the  especial  view  of  their  relation  to  the  text. 
336  pages.  6/2  x  9  inches.  Bound  in  cloth,  with  gold  stamp- 
ing. It  is  unquestionably  the  handsomest  agricultural  refer- 
ence book  that  has  ever  been  issued.  Price,  postpaid,  .  $2.00 

Clean  Milk 

By  S.  D.  BELCHER,  M.D.  In  this  book  the  author  sets  forth 
practical  methods  for  the  exclusion  of  bacteria  from  milk, 
and  how  to  prevent  contamination  of  milk  from  the  stable 
to  the  consumer.  Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  146  pages. 
Cloth - 


Bean  Culture 

By  GLENN  C.  SEVEY,  U.S.  A  practical  treat. ae  on  the  pro- 
duction and  marketing  of  beans.  It  includes  the  manner  of 
growth,  soils  and  fertilizers  adapted,  best  varieties,  seed  selec- 
tion and  breeding,  planting,  harvesting,  insects  and  fungous 
pests,  composition  and  feeding  value;  with  a  special  chapter 
on  markets  by  Albert  W.  Fulton.  A  practical  book  for  the 
grower  and  student  alike.  Illustrated.  144  pages.  5x7 
inches.  Cloth $0.50 

Celery  Culture 

By  W.  R.  BEATTIE.  A  practical  guide  for  beginners  and  a 
standard  reference  of  great  interest  to  persons  already  en- 
gaged in  celery  growing.  It  contains  many  illustrations  giving 
a  clear  conception  of  the  practical  side  of  celery  culture.  The 
work  is  complete  in  every  detail,  from  sowing  a  few  seeds  in 
a  window-box  in  the  house  for  early  plants,  to  the  handling 
and  marketing  of  celery  in  carload  lots.  Fully  illustrated. 
150  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  ......  $0.50 

Tomato  Culture 

By  WILL  W.  TRACY.  The  author  has  rounded  up  in  this 
book  the  most  complete  account  of  tomato  culture  in  all  its 
phases  that  has  ever  been  gotten  together.  It  is  no  second- 
hand work  of  reference,  but  a  complete  story  of  the  practical 
experiences  of  the  best-posted  expert  on  tomatoes  in  the 
world.  No  gardener  or  farmer  can  afford  to  be  without  the 
book.  Whether  grown  for  home  use  or  commercial  purposes, 
the  reader  has  here  suggestions  and  information  nowhere  else 
available.  Illustrated.  150  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  $0.50 

The  Potato 

By  SAMUEL  FRASER.  This  book  is  destined  to  rank  as  a 
standard  work  upon  Potato  Culture.  While  the  practical  side 
has  been  emphasized,  the  scientific  part  has  not  been  neglected, 
and  the  information  given  is  of  value,  both  to  the  grower  and 
to  the  student.  Taken  all  in  all,  it  is  the  most  complete,  reliable 
and  authoritative  book  on  the  potato  ever  published  in  Amer- 
ica. Illustrated.  200  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  .  .  $0.75 

Dwarf  Fruit  Trees 

By  F.  A.  WAUGH.  This  interesting  book  describes  in  detail 
the  several  varieties  of  dwarf  fruit  trees,  their  propagation, 
planting,  pruning,  care  and  general  management.  Where 
there  is  a  limited  amount  of  ground  to  be  devoted  to  orchard 
purposes,  and  where  quick  results  are  desired,  this  book  will 
meet  with  a  warm  welcome.  Illustrated.  112  pages.  5x7 
inches.  Cloth So.se 


Cabbage,  Cauliflower  and  Allied  Vegetables 

By  C.  L.  ALLEN.  A  practical  treatise  on  the  varioua 
types  and  varieties  of  cabbage,  cauliflower,  broccoli,  Brussels 
sprouts,  kale,  collards  and  kohl-rabi.  An  explanation  is  given 
of  the  requirements,  conditions,  cultivation  ahd  general  man- 
agement pertaining  to  the  entire  cabbage  group.  After  this 
each  class  is  treated  separately  and  in  detail.  The  chapter 
on  seed  raising  is  probably  the  most  authoritative  treatise  on 
this  subject  ever  published.  Insects  and  fungi  attacking  this 
class  of  vegetables  are  given  due  attention.  Illustrated.  126 
pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth $0.50 

Asparagus 

By  F.  M.  HEXAMER.  This  is  the  first  book  published  in 
America  which  is  exclusively  devoted  to  the  raising  of  aspara- 
gus for  home  use  as  well  as  for  market.  It  is  a  practical 
and  reliable  treatise  on  the  saving  of  the  seed,  raising  of  the 
plants,  selection  and  preparation  of  the  soil,  planting,  cultiva- 
tion, manuring,  cutting,  bunching,  packing,  marketing,  canning 
and  drying,  insect  enemies,  fungous  diseases  and  every  re- 
quirement to  successful  asparagus  culture,  special  emphasis  be- 
ing given  to  the  importance  of  asparagus  as  a  farm  and  money 
crop.  Illustrated.  174  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  .  $0.50 


The  New  Onion  Culture 

By  T.  GREINER.  Rewritten,  greatly  enlarged  and  brought 
up  to  date.  A  new  method  of  growing  onions  of  largest  size 
and  yield,  on  less  land,  than  can  be  raised  by  the  old  plan. 
Thousands  of  farmers  and  gardeners  and  many  experiment 
stations  have  given  it  practical  trials  which  have  proved  a 
success.  A  complete  guidr  in  growing  onions  with  the  great- 
est profit,  explaining  the  whys  and  wherefores.  Illustrated. 
5x7  inches.  140  pages.  Cloth $0.50 


The  New  Rhubarb  Culture 

A  complete  guide  to  dark  forcing  and  field  culture.     Part 

I By  J.   E.    MORSE,   the   well-known   Michigan   trucker   and 

originator  of  the  now  famous  and  extremely  profitable  new 
methods  of  dark  forcing  and  field  culture.  Part  II— Com- 
piled by  G.  B.  FISKE.  Other  methods  practiced  by  the  most 
experienced  market  gardeners,  greenhouse  men  and  experi- 
menters in  all  parts  of  America.  Illustrated.  130  pages. 

5  x  7  inches.     Cloth $O-50 

(7) 


Successful  Fruit  Culture 

By  SAMUEL  T.  MAYNARD.  n  poetical  guide  to  the  culti- 
vation and  propagation  of  Fruits,  written  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  practical  fruit  grower  who  is  striving  to  make  his 
business  profitable  by  growing  the  b*>ct  fruit  possible  and  at 
the  least  cost.  It  is  up-to-date  in  ev^ry  particular,  and  covers 
the  entire  practice  of  fruit  culture,  harvesting,  storing,  mar- 
keting, forcing,  best  varieties,  etc.,  etc.  It  deals  with  principles 
first  and  with  the  practice  afterwards,  as  the  foundation,  prin- 
ciples of  plant  growth  and  nourishment  must  always  remain 
the  same,  while  practice  will  vary  according  to  the  fruit 
grower's  immediate  conditions  and  environments.  Illustrated. 
265  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth $1.00 

Plums  and  Plum  Culture 

By  F.  A.  WAUGH.  A  complete  manual  for  fruit  growers, 
nurserymen,  farmers  and  gardeners,  on  all  known  varieties 
of  plums  and  their  successful  management.  This  book  marks 
an  epoch  in  the  horticultural  literature  of  America.  It  is  a 
complete  monograph  of  the  plums  cultivated  in  and  indigenous 
to  North  America.  It  will  be  found  indispensable  to  the 
scientist  seeking  the  most  recent  and  authoritative  informa- 
tion concerning  this  group,  to  the  nurseryman  who  wishes  to 
handle  his  varieties  accurately  and  intelligently,  and  to  the 
cultivator  who  would  like  to  grow  plums  successfully.  Illus- 
trated. 391  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth $1.50 

Fruit  Harvesting,  Storing,  Marketing 

By  F.  A.  WAUGH.  A  practical  guide  to  the  picking,  stor- 
ing, shipping  and  marketing  of  fruit.  The  principal  subjects 
covered  are  the  fruit  market,  fruit  picking,  sorting  and  pack- 
ing, the  fruit  storage,  evaporation,  canning,  statistics  of  the 
fruit  trade,  fruit  package  laws,  commission  dealers  and  deal- 
ing, cold  storage,  etc.,  etc.  No  progressive  fruit  grower  can 
afford  to  be  without  this  most  valuable  book.  Illustrated. 
232  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth $1.00 

Systematic  Pomology 

By  F.  A.  WAUGH,  professor  of  horticulture  and  landscape 
gardening  in  the  Massachusetts  agricultural  college,  formerly 
of  the  university  of  Vermont.  This  is  the  first  book  in  the 
English  language  which  has  ever  made  the  attempt  at  a  com- 
plete and  comprehensive  treatment  of  systematic  pomology. 
It  presents  clearly  and  in  detail  the  whole  method  by  which 
fruits  are  studied.  The  book  is  suitably  illustrated.  288 
pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth $1.00 


Rural  School  Agriculture 

By  CHARLES  W.  DAVIS.  A  book  intended  for  the  use  of 
both  teachers  and  pupils.  Its  aim  is  to  enlist  the  interest  of 
the  boys  oi  the  farm  and  awaken  in  their  minds  the  fact  that 
the  problems  of  the  farm  are  great  enough  to  command  all  the 
brain  power  they  can  summon.  The  book  is  a  manual  of  exer- 
cises covering  many  phases  of  agriculture,  and  it  may  be  used 
with  any  text-book  of  agriculture,  or  without  a  text-book.  The 
exercises  will  enable  the  student  to  think,  and  to  work  out  the 
scientific  principles  underlying  some  of  the  most  important 
agricultural  operations.  The  author  feels  that  in  the  teaching 
of  agriculture  in  the  rural  schools,  the  laboratory  phase  is  al- 
most entirely  neglected.  If  an  experiment  helps  the  pupil  to 
think,  or  makes  his  conceptions  clearer,  it  fills  a  useful  pur- 
pose, and  eventually  prepares  for  successful  work  upon  the 
farm.  The  successful  farmer  of  the  future  must  be  an  experi- 
menter in  a  small  way.  Following  many  of  the  exercises  are  a 
number  of  questions  which  prepare  the  way  for  further  re- 
search work.  The  material  needed  for  performing  the  experi- 
ments is  simple,  and  can  be  devised  by  the  teacher  and  pupils, 
or  brought  from  the  homes.  Illustrated.  300  pages.  Cloth. 
5x7  inches $1.00 

Agriculture   Through  the   Laboratory  and   School 
Garden 

By  C.  R.  JACKSON  and  Mrs.  L.  S.  DAUGHERTY.  As  its  name 
implies,  this  book  gives  explicit  directions  for  actual  work  in 
the  laboratory  and  the  school  garden,  through  which  agri- 
cultural principles  may  be  taught.  The  author's  aim  has  been 
to  present  actual  experimental  work  in  every  phase  of  the 
subject  possible,  and  to  state  the  directions  for  such  work  so 
that  the  student  can  perform  it  independently  of  the  teacher, 
and  to  state  them  in  such  a  way  that  the  results  will  not  be 
suggested  by  these  directions.  One  must  perform  the  experi- 
ment to  ascertain  the  result.  It  embodies  in  the  text  a  com- 
prehensive, practical,  scientific,  yet  simple  discussion  of  such 
facts  as  are  necessary  to  the  understanding  of  many  of  the 
agricultural  principles  involved  in  every-day  life.  The  book, 
although  primarily  intended  for  use  in  schools,  is  equally 
valuable  to  any  one  desiring  to  obtain  in  an  easy  and  pleasing 
manner  a  general  knowledge  of  elementary  agriculture.  Fully 
illustrated.  5^/2  x  8  inches.  462  pages.  Cloth.  Net  .  $1.50 

Soil  Physics  Laboratory  Guide 

By  W.  G.  STEVENSON  and  I.  Q.  SCHAUB.  A  carefully  out- 
lined series  of  experiments  in  soil  physics.  A  portion  of  the 
experiments  outlined  in  this  guide  have  been  used  quite  gen- 
erally in  recent  years.  The  exercises  (of  which  there  are  40) 
are  listed  in  a  logical  order  with  reference  to  their  relation 
to  each  other  and  the  skill  required  on  the  part  of  the  student. 
Illustrated.  About  100  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  .  $0.50 

(17) 


Farmer's  Cyclopedia 
of  Agriculture    »    & 

A  Compendium  of  Agricultural  Science  and  Prac- 
tice on  Farm,  Orchard  and  Garden  Crops,  and  the 
Feeding  and  Diseases  of  Farm  Animals 

"By   EARLEY   VERNON   WILCOX,    Ph.  D. 
art   CLARENCE    BEAMAN   SMITH,    M.  S< 

Associate  Editors  in  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture 

TJHis    is    a    new,    practical,    and    complete 
|    presentation  of  the  whole  subject  of  ag- 
riculture in  its  broadest  sense.    It  is  de- 
signed lor  the  use  of  agriculturists  who 
desire   up-to-date,    reliable   information 
on -all  matters  pertaining  to  crops  and  stock,  but 
more    particularly    for   the   actual    farmer.     The 
volume  contains 

Detailed  directions  for  the  culture  of  every 
important  field,    orchard ,    and    garden    crop 

*;rown  in  America,  together  with  descriptions  of 
their  chief  insect  pests  and  fungous  diseases,  and 
remedies  for  their  control.  It  contains  an  ac- 
count of  modern  methods  in  feeding  and  handling 
all  farm  s^ock,  including  poultry.  The  diseases 
which  affect  different  farm  animals  and  poultry 
are  described,  and  the  most  recent  remedies  sug- 
gested for  controlling  them. 

Every  bit  of  this  vast  mass  of  new  and  useful 
information  is  authoritative,  practical  and  easily 
found,  and  no  effort  has  been  spared  to  include 
all  desirable  details.  There  are  between  6,000 
and  7,000  topics  covered  in  these  references,  and 
it  contains  700  royal  8vo  pages  and  nearly  500 
superb  half-tone  and  other  original  illustrations, 
making  the  most  perfect  Cyclopedia  of  Agricul- 
ture ever  attempted. 

Handsomely  bound  in  cloth.  £3. SO;  half  morocco 
(tfery  jamptaoaj),  £4-.5O.  postpaid 


ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY, 3IS 


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